Experiment No. 3 Audio Components By: Prof. Gabriel M. Rebeiz The University of Michigan EECS Dept. Ann Arbor, Michigan You have been measuring and measuring but not yet building anything. I hope that you are now comfortable with the equipment. Well, Good News! You will now design, build and test some essential components of an audio amplifier. A schematic of an audio amplifier is shown in Fig. 1. Pin (µW) MIC MIC Pre-Amp G = 100 Very sensitive differential amplifier: Experiment #5 Line-level amplifier: Experiment #4 Tone control filter: Experiment #6 Output amplifier Tested in Experiment #3. (You will build it in EECS 311 since it needs a push/pull stage.) Input Pout (W) Phono Input Phono Pre-Amp Tape/CD/Aux Input Amplifier Gain = 1-300 (0-50 dB) "Line Level" Treble/Bass Control +18 dB Output Stage G = 20 (26 dB) (4-16 ž Speakers) (On the back panel) 1 (Switch on the front panel) (Volume control on the front panel) (Tone controls on the front panel) (No access) (Speaker connections on back panel) Experiment #3: We will test a 2 W audio amplifier and determine its gain, bandwidth, power consumption, ideal and non-ideal response. This is the “output driver” in audio terms and home versions deliver power from 20 – 200 W! Experiment #4: The easiest amplifier of all: A variable gain amplifier based on the LM 741 op-amp. We will spice it up by making a two-channel summer, as in the audio mixer of a D.J. or a recording studio. We will also look at intermodulation products when the amplifier is driven into non-linearity. Experiment #5: A nice one: We will build an amplifier which is immune to noise (waoo!) and which can amplify very low level signals (µV-mV). Similar amplifiers are used as a hi-fi MIC pre-amp or a phono pre-amp. Experiment #6: Capacitors in action: We will design and build tone control circuits which can amplify/attenuate the bass and treble frequencies up to 20 dB. Open Audio Lab: You will assemble an audio system from your circuits built in Lab Experiments #4 and #6, and the circuit you tested in Experiment #3. You will design and build voltage dividers between these amplifiers, connect the system to your CD player, and listen to your favorite music! Experiment No. 3. Ideal and Non-Ideal Amplifiers: Part 1 We have studied in class that an ideal amplifier follows the Golden Rules. To review, the Golden Rules are: 1. Input currents are equal to zero. 2. The voltage difference between the (+) and (–) inputs (∆V) is zero since the amplifier has a very large (infinite) openloop gain. I=0 + ΔV = 0 – I=0 – +Vcc A + Vo = finite – + –Vcc Using these rules, we analyzed several circuits (inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, etc.) and obtained expressions for the transfer function (Vo/Vi) with no regards to the limitations of the ideal op-amp model. In this experiment, we will discuss some of these nonidealities and how they affect the performance of the amplifier. 1. Power Consumption of the Amplifier The amplifier is composed of resistors and several transistors (typically 10-50) and therefore requires DC power to bias and operate the transistors. The DC power consumed in the op-amp is obviously delivered by the +Vcc/-Vcc power supply. The amplifier delivers power to the load and this power also comes from the power supply (but passes through the amplifier first). For example, an audio amplifier may be delivering 10 W to a speaker but also consuming 4 W internally. The resulting power drain from the source is therefore 14 W. It is easy to calculate the power consumed by the amplifier. First, calculate the power delivered to the load. Then calculate the power delivered from the DC source. The difference between these powers is the power consumed in the amplifier. Pamp = PDC – PLoad with PLoad = V (pk) V02 (rms) = 2 RL RL Vcc (+) 2 0 PDC = Vcc (I DC ) for single power supply connection + Vi – – IDC (+) + IDC (–) Vo Vcc (–) or + PDC = Vcc+ (IDC ) + Vcc– (IDC– ) ≈ 2Vcc+ (IDC+ ) 2 (I + DC − = I DC ) for dual power supply connections. 2. Bandwidth of the Amplifier All amplifiers operate up to a certain high frequency limit. Beyond this, the amplifier gain drops uniformly at –20 dB/decade (or even faster). Also, most amplifiers have a lowfrequency limit imposed by internal, or external, components. Between the low and high frequency points, most amplifiers have a constant gain which is referred to as the “midband gain”. Actually, one can design an amplifier with nearly any gain response and the gain need not be flat. However, for now and up to Experiment #4, the transfer function V0/Vi will have a flat gain response (up to the high frequency limit). The high frequency and low-frequency limits are referred to as “corner” frequencies and define the “bandwidth” of the amplifier. They are taken as the half-power points (–3 dB), where the gain drops by RL 3 dB of its value at midband (or the output voltage drops by 0.707 of its value at midband for a constant input voltage). (Vo/Vi) dB Midband Gain (G = Vo/Vi ) 40 – 3dB – 3dB Half Power Point [Vo/Vi = 0.707 (Vo/Vi) midband] Bandwidth of Amp. ~ 70 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz ~ 120 kHz log f Example: The 3-dB bandwidth is from 70 Hz to 120 kHz. The midband gain is 40 dB. 3. Gain Bandwidth Product Amplifiers are typically rated by their Gain•Bandwidth product, a fundamental quality of amplifier design (you will study this in EECS 311). Here Bandwidth means the highfrequency point only. The Gain•Bandwidth product of any amplifier is constant. If an amplifier has a Gain•Bandwidth product of 20 MHz, this means that it will have a bandwidth of 200 KHz for a gain of 100, a bandwidth of 2 MHz for a gain of 10 and a bandwidth of 20 MHz for a gain of 1. The LM 380 has a typical gain of 50 and a typical bandwidth of 100 KHz. This means that its Gain•Bandwidth product is 5 MHz. However, do not be surprised if you measure a Gain•Bandwidth product of 15 MHz. The ratings are generally quite conservative to allow for fabrication process variations. The LM 741 (or LM 747, used in Experiments 4, 5, 6) has a Gain•Bandwidth product of 0.44 MHz minimum and 1.5 MHz typical. This means that for a gain of 40, the bandwidth should be 11 KHz minimum and most probably will be around 35 KHz. 4. Maximum Output Voltage Swing (Output Voltage Saturation) The maximum output voltage delivered to the load cannot be higher than Vcc (or lower than –Vcc for negative voltages). Actually, the maximum output voltage is 1.0–1.5 V lower than (Vcc) due to the small voltage drop in the output section of the op-amp. If a higher output voltage is requested, the amplifier will simply saturate (or clip the output signal). This generates a lot of high-order harmonics and deteriorates the sound quality in an audio-amplifier. 3 V0 1–1.5 V + Vcc | Vmax | Gain = V0/Vi Vi | Vmax | – Vcc 1–1.5 V 5. Maximum Output Current (Short Circuit Current) Another amplifier rating is the maximum current it can deliver (or sink in the negative portion of the waveform). This quantity can vary a lot between different types of op-amps. For example, the LM 380 can deliver up to 1.3 A, while the LM 741 can deliver only 25 mA. The maximum output current determines which load resistor one should use with the opamp. For example, using the LM 741 and an output voltage swing of + 6 V, one cannot choose a 100 Ω load resistor. At +6 V, the required output current is 60 mA which is far higher than the rated short circuit current of 25 mA. In this case, the amplifier will clip at 2.5 V (25 mA x 100 Ω)! A better choice would have been a 240 Ω resistor or higher. The short circuit current is a nice protection for the amplifier in case of an accidental shortcircuit at the output. It will just deliver Isc and will not burn the amplifier. Question: When do I know if an amplifier is voltage or current clipping? Answer: If the output voltage swing is limited by Vmax, then it is voltage clipping. If it is lower than Vmax, then most probably it is current clipping. 6. Total Harmonic Distortion The total harmonic distortion (THD) is a figure of merit describing the linearity of the amplifier. Most amplifiers are not perfectly linear, and even with small input signals, generate a small amount of higher order harmonics. The LM 380 has a THD rating of 0.2% up to 10 KHz and 0.4% at 20 KHz. However look closely at the THD rating vs. output power in the LM 380 data sheet (page 41). When the amplifier starts clipping, the THD skyrockets from 0.2% to 10%. High performance audio amplifiers have a THD of 0.01– 0.04% at midband. 4 dB A Perfect Linear Amplifier V0 = A Vi V0 Vi f0 f dB "Linear" amplifier with a small non-linear component A V0 2 3 4 5 V0 = AVi + ßVi + Vi + Vi + Vi + ... ß, , , ... = small Vi f0 2f0 3f0 4f0 ... f dB Non-Linear Amplifier (clipping) A V0 2 Vi f0 2f0 3f0 4f0 The THD is defined as: THD (%) = where ∑P harmonics Psignal ∑(P harmonics Psignal ) 3 4 5 V0 = AVi + ßVi + Vi + Vi + Vi ß, , , ... = large ... ... f x 100 ⎛ V 24f ⎞ ⎛ V52f ⎞ ⎛ V2f2 ⎞ ⎛ V23f ⎞ 0 0 ⎜ ⎟ = +⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ⎜ 0 ⎟ + ... ⎝ RL ⎠ ⎝ RL ⎠ ⎝ RL ⎠ ⎝ RL ⎠ V in rms! ⎛ V2 ⎞ = ⎜ f0 ⎟ ⎝ RL ⎠ 7. Input Currents/Offset Voltage/Input Resistance: We will cover these in Experiment #5. For this experiment, assume that Ii = 0, ∆V = 0 and that the amplifier has an infinite input resistance (Ri = ∞). These are the “Golden Rules” of an ideal amplifier. 5 Experiment No. 3. The LM 380 Audio Power Amplifier The LM 380 is an audio amplifier developed expressly for low distortion amplification. It has an internally set gain of 50 and can drive 1.2 W into an 8 Ω speaker with a power supply voltage of 12 V. It can also drive 0.5 W into an 8 Ω load a power supply voltage of 9 V. As you will see in the lab, 1 W results in a loud sound at 0.5 – 1 m from the speaker. The LM 380 can be operated from a single supply and the output voltage will automatically be set at half the supply voltage. A very nice feature of the LM 380 is that it is current limited. This means that the LM 380 will not burn if an accidental short circuit occurs at its output. The LM 380 is inserted into a 14-pin package with the pin connection shown in Fig. 1. Note the multitude of ground connections. These are used to reduce the inductance to ground and therefore to result in a better frequency response. Pins 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12 are for the return ground of the load current (which can be large). It is good practice to connect them all to the common DC ground. Pin 7 is the DC ground of the input transistors and must be used for the input lines. Bypass 1 14 Positive Supply Noninverting Input 2 13 Not Used Ground 3 12 Ground Ground 4 + 11 Ground Ground 5 – 10 Ground Inverting Input 6 9 Not Used Ground 7 8 Output +Vcc LM 380 Fig. 1: Pin connections for the LM 380 audio amplifier. Max. Output Power of the LM 380: The output voltage swing of the LM 380 is limited by the DC supply voltage (0-Vcc). The output voltage will saturate ~1.3 – 1.5 V below/above the Vcc/0 V level (Fig. 2). This means that the Vcc level sets the maximum undistorted output voltage swing (no clipping), and therefore the maximum power delivered to the load. For a Vcc of 9 V, the maximum voltage swing is ~6 V ppk. For a Vcc of 12 V, the maximum voltage swing is ~9 V ppk. As discussed in class: Vpk = − Vppk 2 2 Vpk ) (Vrms )2 ( and P = = . 2 RL RL This means that the maximum undistorted power delivered to an 8 Ω load (speaker) is 0.56 W for a Vcc of 9 V, 1.26 W for a Vcc of 12 V, and 3.5 W for a Vcc of 18 V. Above these voltage (or power) levels, the amplifier saturates (clipping) and generates a lot of harmonic signals. 6 Vcc 1.3 – 1.5 V Output voltage range with no clipping Undistorted Waveform 1.3 – 1.5 V 0 V Fig. 2: The maximum voltage swing of the LM 380 amplifier. It uses a single positive supply. The essential electrical characteristics of the LM 380 are presented below. The manufacturer‘s data sheet is also attached. 7 Supply Voltage: +9, +12 V typ., +22 V max. Gain x Bandwidth: 10 MHz typ. Output Power: 0.5 W into 8 ž with +9 V 1.2 W into 8 ž with +12 V 3.5 W into 8 ž with +18 V Total Harmonic Distortion: <0.2% at 1 kHz up to 1 W with a 12 V supply. Input Resistance: 150 kž Input Bias Current: 100 nA Output Short-Circuit Current: 1.3 A (Gain = 1, BW = 10 MHz) Gain = 50, BW = 200 KHz) Taken from National Semiconductor–Application Specific Analog Products Databook, 1995 Edition. 8 Taken from National Semiconductor–Application Specific Analog Products Databook, 1995 Edition. 9 Taken from National Semiconductor–Application Specific Analog Products Databook, 1995 Edition. 10 Experiment No. 3. Audio Amplifier Frequency Response, Distortion and Clipping Goal: The goal of Experiment #3 is to test an audio power amplifier and determine its gain, bandwidth, power consumption and total harmonic distortion for different input levels. Read Chapters 1 and 2 in the additional course notes (Audio Electronics) Read this experiment and answer the pre-lab questions before you come to the lab. This experiment is relatively short, because you do not have to build the circuit: you will simply test amplifiers built by lab instructors. Therefore this experiment is combined with the Lab Lecture. 3.1 Audio Amplifier Frequency Response and Clipping: Equipment: • Agilent E3631A Triple output DC power supply • • • Agilent 33120A Function Generator Agilent 34401A Multimeter Agilent 54645A Oscilloscope The LM 380 audio amplifier circuit is shown below: +10 V + – C1 = 1 µF 560 Ω 2 ~ Vs – + + + 10 kΩ Vi 10 kΩ – DC block and increase source resistance to 560 Ω C3 = 470 µF 14 LM 380 6 1 C4 = 470 µF 8 + – + + 5 µF – 2.7 Ω 0.1 µF V0 RL = 8 Ω (Speaker) – 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12 Explanation of Components: 1. The power supply capacitor (C4 = 500 µF) attenuates the noise picked up by the power supply leads. 2. The large capacitor at the output (C3 = 500 µF) blocks the DC voltage (~4.5 V) at the output terminal of the op-amp from the load resistor RL. 3. The medium capacitor at the input (C1 = 1 µF) results in a low-frequency cutoff frequency around 100 Hz and blocks any DC from the source to the input of the op-amp. 4. The 5 µF capacitor connected to pin 1 is needed for low frequency stability. 11 5. The 2.7 Ω/0.1 µF components are needed to help the LM 380 deliver high currents to the load. Basically, the 0.1 µF discharges into the load under high current conditions (|V0| is large). It will then charge back under low output currents (|V0| is small). You have in front of you an Audio amplifier capable of delivering ~0.8 W into an 8 Ω load from a +10 V supply. Care was taken to lay it out in a clear manner so as to show you how circuits should be built. This amplifier is rated as: Frequency Response: 20 Hz – 20 kHz (or more). Gain: 50 (34 dB) and flat over the frequency range. Max. Output Power: ~0.8 W into an 8 Ω load for Vcc = 10 V. Total Harmonic Distortion: <0.4% up to 0.5 W. You will learn later how to design such an amplifier and the role of the resistors and capacitors in the circuit. The goal now is to treat it as a black box and test it. Draw the circuit in your notebook. NOW! Experiment Set-Up: 1. Connect +10 V to the +Vcc. Connect the (–) terminal of the power supply to the LM 380 amplifier ground. (Again, make sure that the (–) terminal of the Agilent E3631A power supply is connected to the ground pin on the power supply.) Measure the DC voltage at the output terminal (pin #8) and at the input terminal (pins #2 and 6). You should measure ~5 V at pin #8 and ~0 V at pins #2 and #6. 2. Set the Agilent 33120A function generator to deliver 100 mV ppk at 1 kHz. Look at it on the signal scope (on Channel 1) in time and frequency domain. 3. Connect the output of the function generator to the input of the audio amplifier. GAIN AND DISTORTION/CLIPPING MEASUREMENTS: 4. Using the oscilloscope, measure the output of the audio amplifier across the 8 Ω load (connect it to Channel 2). The voltage should be around 4.5 Vppk since the amplifier gain is set at 50 (Vo/V+) and there is a 10 10.56 ≈ 0.95 voltage divider at the input (Vi/Vs). The delivered power to the resistor is around PL = Vpk2/2R = 0.40 W. Plot the time and frequency domain signal (of Vo). Measure Vppk and Vrms in time domain (using the scope Softkeys at the bottom of the screen under the 5. 12 Voltage menu). Measure the fundamental (fo) harmonics (up to 5fo) in the frequency domain (they may be very small and not measurable). DO NOT MEASURE ANY HARMONICS IF THEY ARE 40 dB BELOW THE PEAK. Measure the DC current supplied by the Agilent power supply (see p. 7 to see how to do it easily). Increase the input waveform to Vs = 200 mVppk. The output waveform should be around 10 Vppk for an ideal amplifier with no clipping. However, due to clipping, it will actually look more like a square-wave and the harmonic levels should skyrocket! Plot the time and frequency domain signals (of Vo). Measure Vrms and Vppk in the time domain. Measure the fundamental and harmonic levels (up to 9fo) in the frequency domain. Measure the + clipping voltages at the output. Measure the DC current supplied by the Agilent power supply. Measure Explanation: The clipping at Vi = 130 mV and above is due to the DC power supply of 10 V. If we increase the DC voltage to +15 V, the maximum output voltage swing will be ~ Vppk (max) = 12 V (with a maximum power output of 2.25 W into an 8 Ω load). The maximum allowable input voltage for no distortion will therefore be Vi ppk (max) = 240 mV. The chip is rated at this power and will work well. But then, we need to worry about proper heat sinking of the LM 380. DO NOT BIAS THE LM 380 AT +15 V! FREQUENCY RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS: 6. Set the Agilent 33120A function generator to deliver Vs = 100 mVppk and connect the signal output of the Agilent function generator to the input of the LM 380 amplifier. 7. Connect the output of the LM 380 amplifier to Channel 2 of the scope. Make sure that you are in the linear region (no clipping). 8. Measure the transfer function (gain vs. frequency) from 20 Hz – 1 MHz in a logarithmic fashion (1, 2, 5 frequency hops). This is done by choosing 20, 50, 100, 200, ... Hz and measuring Vo/Vs (Vs = 100 mVppk = constant). Determine the 3-dB bandwidth. Remember, the 3-dB bandwidth is when Vo in Volts drops to 0.707 of its value at midband in Volts (or by -3 dB from its value at midband in the frequency domain). 9. The LM 380 will operate well to around 60 KHz. After this, you will starting noticing “glitches” in the output voltage at the zero crossings. These glitches will become more pronounced as the frequency increases and may dominate the waveform above 300 KHz. The glitches are commonly called “cross-over distortion” and are a characteristic of class AB push-pull amplifiers. This type of amplifier is used at the output stage of the LM 380 (look at the two diodes and two output transistors in the schematic). You will study push-pull amplifiers in EECS 311/413. NOTE: The op-amp has a very wide frequency response from 1 Hz to 10 MHz. Some of the resistors/capacitors in the circuit are used to limit the frequency response from ~100 Hz to ~300 kHz. This is done so that the amplifier does not pick up a lot of 60 Hz noise or computer switching noise. This noise, when amplified, could cause the amplifier to break into oscillations. You have finished your lab now. If you wish, take the speaker and connect it to the amplifier and listen to clean signals and distorted (clipped) signals. If you choose a fundamental frequency of 400-600 Hz, I guarantee you that you will clearly hear the higher harmonics! 13 Experiment No. 3 Audio Amplifier Frequency Response, Distortion and Clipping Worksheet/Notes +10 V + – C1 = 1 µF 560 Ω 2 + ~ Vs – 10 kΩ Vi C3 = 470 µF 14 LM 380 6 1 10 kΩ – DC block and increase source resistance to 560 Ω 14 + + 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12 C4 = 470 µF 8 + – + + 5 µF – 2.7 Ω 0.1 µF V0 RL = 8 Ω (Speaker) – Experiment No. 3. Audio Amplifier Frequency Response, Distortion and Clipping Pre-Lab Assignment 1. An amplifier with a gain of 100 is connected to a +12 V single power supply and draws 5 mA at Vi = 0 Vrms and 100 mA for Vi = 35 mVrms. Take RL = 16 Ω. a. Calculate the power delivered to the load for Vi = 0 and Vi = 35 mVrms. b. Calculate the power consumed by the amplifier for Vi = 0 and Vi = 35 mVrms. 2. A measured audio spectrum across an 8 Ω speaker is: at fo = 1 KHz V(fo) = 17 dB V(3fo) = 0 dB V(5fo) = –5 dB V(7fo) = –10 dB a. Calculate Vrms of the fundamental and each harmonic. b. Calculate the power delivered to the load at each frequency. c. Calculate the THD present in the signal. 3. The gain bandwidth product of the LM 741 op-amp is between 0.4 MHz and 1.5 MHz. What is the 741 op-amp high-frequency bandwidth for a gain of 20? Can we build a hi-fi audio amplifier with the 741 op-amp with a gain of 400? 4. An audio amplifier is connected to a +Vcc dual power supply and can deliver an undistorted output voltage up to |Vcc|-2 V into an 8Ω load. Calculate the minimum +Vcc required for an undistorted output power of 5W, 20W and 100W. 15 Experiment No. 3 Audio Amplifier Frequency Response, Distortion and Clipping Lab Report Assignment 1. For the two cases: Vs = 100 mV ppk Vs = 200 mV ppk do the following: a) Using the measured DC input current from the Agilent power supply (Vcc = 10 V), calculate the input DC power to the amplifier circuit. This power is delivered to the op-amp circuit and to the load. b) Using the measured Vo(t), calculate the power dissipated in the 8 Ω load (Pload = Vrms2/8Ω). c) Calculate how much power is dissipated in the op-amp. d) Calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD) in % present at the output 2 Using the measured data, plot the transfer function (y-axis: dB scale from 0 to +40 dB, x-axis logarithmic scale: from 20 Hz to 1 MHz. Determine the midband gain in dB and the 3-dB bandwidth. 3. a. The output of the non-linear amplifier which is clipping symmetrically is given by: where vi = Vi cos (ωt). vo = Αvi + γ vi3 + ξvi5 where A ≡ gain of amplifier and β, γ << A ≡ non-linear components Calculate vo(t) and put it in the form: Vo (t ) = f1 (V1, A, γ , ξ ) cos(ωt ) + f3 (V1 , A, γ , ξ)cos (3ω t ) + f5 (V1 , A, γ , ξ )cos( 5ωt ) where f1 ( ), f 2 ( ), f3 ( )are functions of V1 , A, γ ,ξ . For doing so, you have to replace powers of cos (ωt) with harmonics such as cos (2ωt). 16 You need the following formulas: 1+ cos (2x) 2 cos (−x) = cos (x) 1 1 cos (x) cos (y)= cos (x + y) + cos (x − y) 2 2 This is simple trigonometric calculations. You will find that the non-linear amplifier “creates” components at 3ω and 5ω. The expressions for f3 and f5 will give you amplitudes of the harmonics. b. For A = 30, γ = 3, ξ = 1, calculate the resulting output spectrum in Vrms (and also in dB) for Vi = 200 mV Vrms. Calculate the THD. (This problem has nothing to do with your lab measurements.) cos 2 (x) = These experiments have been submitted by third parties and Agilent has not tested any of the experiments. You will undertake any of the experiments solely at your own risk. Agilent is providing these experiments solely as an informational facility and without review. AGILENT MAKES NO WARRANTY OF ANY KIND WITH REGARD TO ANY EXPERIMENT. AGILENT SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, GENERAL, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF ANY OF THE EXPERIMENTS. 17