Advanced Doherty Architecture

ED R E
S
U ATU
C
FO E FE
SU
S
I
Advanced
Doherty
Architecture
© DIGITAL STOCK
F
or modulated signals with a high peakto-average power ratio (PAPR), the transmitter has to be operated with its average
output power backed off for an acceptable
linearity at the expense of low efficiency. To
achieve high efficiency and high linearity at the same
time, both an efficiency enhancement technique and a
linearization technique should
be utilized. A powerful and
reliable linearization technique, digital predistortion
(DPD), is currently the most
favored method for the linearization of base-station
amplifiers [1]–[3]. Possible efficiency enhancement
techniques are the hybrid envelope elimination and
restoration/envelope tracking technique (H-EER/ET)
and the Doherty technique.
In the H-EER/ET transmitter, as shown in Figure 1(a), the power amplifier (PA) is driven to the saturated state by the modulated input signal, and the
drain bias of the PA is modulated by an optimized
envelope signal through an efficient bias modulator. Because the PA operates in saturation at all output power levels, highly efficient operation can be
expected. The amplitude is then
recovered through bias adaptation, while the phase information of the input signal is left
intact under the condition that
the saturated PA generates a constant phase delay.
Therefore, the H-EER/ET transmitter can, theoretically, have excellent efficiency and linearity along
with a high output power capability. But its performance is limited due to the difficulty of building a
Bumman Kim, Ildu Kim,
and Junghwan Moon
Bumman Kim ([email protected]), Ildu Kim, and Junghwan Moon ([email protected]) are with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Republic of Korea.
Copyright © 2010 IEEE. Reprinted from the IEEE Microwave Magazine, August 2010. 1527/3342
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MMM.2010.937098
This material is posted here with permission of the IEEE. Such permission of the IEEE does not in any way imply IEEE endorsement of any of Cree’s products
or services. Internal or personal use of this material is permitted. However, permission to reprint/republish this material for advertising or promotional purposes or for
creating new collective works for resale or redistribution must be1527-3342/10/$26.00©2010
obtained from the IEEE by IEEE
writing to
72
August 2010
[email protected] By choosing to view this document, you agree to all provisions of the copyright laws protecting it.
bias modulator with high efficiency and wide bandwidth and due to the nonconstant delay from the PA
with drain bias adaptation.
The Doherty PA, as shown in Figure 1(b), is also
an effective efficiency enhancement technique. It
uses separate carrier and peaking PAs. Only the
carrier PA is turned on during low-power operation, while the two PAs are turned on at high power,
thereby enhancing the efficiency. More detail on the
Doherty PA is provided in the following. However,
the Doherty technique is not an optimal tool for the
efficient amplification of a high PAPR signal because
a nonoptimal efficiency region exists due to operation in the unsaturated region of the carrier and
peaking PAs [5]–[7], [12]. In spite of this imperfection, the Doherty PA has been reported to deliver
considerably high efficiency because of its advanced
design with a simple structure. Accordingly, the
Doherty PA has experienced widespread acceptance
in the marketplace in recent years [13]. Among the
various Doherty PAs, the three-stage Doherty PA
has superior efficiency characteristics for high PAPR
signals because it has three maximum efficiency
points as its output power is swept.
This article introduces the basic operating principle of the N-way and three-stage Doherty PAs [14],
[15] and compares the average efficiency of the various Doherty PAs under modulated signal conditions.
To achieve high efficiency at the backed-off output
power region while simultaneously maintaining
peak power, the gate bias should be adapted with
the envelope tracking technique. The operation of
these amplifiers is described in the following using
Matlab simulations. For verification, two kinds of
three-stage Doherty PAs that use envelope tracking
techniques are demonstrated under IEEE 802.16e
Mobile WiMAX signal excitation [16].
The Doherty PA provides dynamic
load modulation and achieves high
efficiency at backed-off output power
level as well as at the peak power.
Doherty Amplifier Operation:
Load Modulation
The Doherty amplifier was first proposed by W. H.
Doherty in 1936 [4]. The original Doherty amplifier
consisted of two tube amplifiers and an impedance
inverting network. This impedance inverting network
is configured using a quarter-wave-length line as
shown in Figure 1(b) and modulates the load impedance of the carrier amplifier according to the current
level of the peaking PA. This modulation behavior
provides the superior performance of the Doherty
amplifier [5]–[7].
Most PAs have a constant load impedance and one
maximum efficiency point at the peak power because
the full output voltage swing is achieved only at the
peak output power. On the other hand, the Doherty PA
provides dynamic load modulation and achieves high
efficiency at backed-off output power level as well as
at the peak power.
In the Doherty amplifier, the carrier amplifier is
biased at Class B or AB mode, and the peaking amplifier is biased at Class C mode. Accordingly, only the
carrier amplifier is operational at a low power level.
As the power level is increased, like any other PA, the
efficiency of the carrier amplifier is increased, and it
reaches the first maximum efficiency point. At this
power level, the peaking amplifier is turned on. The
second maximum efficiency point is reached when
the peaking amplifier provides the high efficiency.
Therefore, it has two maximum efficiency points,
Offset Line
Ro
HEER
RF Input
Delay
Line
Modulation Signal
(a)
RF PA
RF Output
Input
Input Power Splitter
Bias Modulator
0°
Carrier Amp.
λ /4 (Ro)
Ro
90°
Output
λ /4 (R o /!N )
Peaking
Amp. #1
…
ET
...
...
Envelope
Detector
Offset Gain EnvelopeShaping
Level + X
Block
Detec +
∑
X
-tion
Ro
90°
Peaking
Amp. # (N – 1)
(b)
Figure 1. Architecture of the (a) hybrid envelope elimination and recovery/envelope tracking transmitter and (b) N-way
Doherty power amplifier.
August 2010
73
I c′
I p = I p (1) + . . . + I p (N – 1)
V0
λ /4, Ro
Z p(1)
Zp
Z′c
Zc
Ro
N
Ic
N · Ro
1 + Ip / Ic
∴ZC =
I p(1)
∴Zp = (1 +
Z p (N – 1)
...
I p (N – 1)
Zpi
IC
Ro
, i = 1 ~ (N – 1)
=
)·
Ip
N N–1
(a)
300
1
0.9
250
0.8
200
0.6
RLoad (Ω)
IFund (A)
0.7
Carrier
0.5
0.4
0.3
Peaking
(Two Way)
Peaking
(Three Way)
0.2
0
150
Carrier
(Two Way)
50
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Normalized Input Voltage
0
1
Peaking
(Two Way)
Carrier
(Three Way)
100
0.1
0
Peaking
(Three Way)
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Normalized Input Voltage
1
(b)
Ids
Imax
Peak Power
Carrier PA
(Class B)
Imax/2
ηcarrier =
=
6 dB Back Off : Two Way
Imax/3
9.5 dB Back Off :
Three way
Vk
Vout
Vds
Vdc
Ids
Imax
Peaking PA
(Class B)
Vout
Vdc
π · Vdc – Vk ,
4
Vdc
V
1
< in ≤ 1
Vmax
N
We assume that the Vk is inversely
proportional to the fundamental current
level on Ids axis.
(Vout): Fundamental Output Voltage
(Vdc – Vk): Maximum Magnitude of Vout
Peak Power
Vk
π · Vout , 0 < Vin < 1
Vmax N
4 Vdc
ηpeaking =
π · Vout , 0 < Vin < 1
Vmax
4 Vdc
=
π · Vdc – Vk , Vin = 1
Vmax
4
Vdc
Vds
(c)
Figure 2. N-way Doherty power amplifier’s operation. (a) Ideal current source representing a unit cell. (b) Fundamental
current and load impedance of each unit cell. (c) Load-lines of carrier and peaking unit cells.
74
August 2010
enhancing the efficiency at the backed-off output
power level.
If the number of unit PAs is N with (N–1) unit cells
for the peaking PA, then it is called an N-way Doherty
PA. The peaking PA’s size (1 to N–1) compared to the
carrier PA size determines the Doherty PA’s backedoff output power level for the first maximum efficiency point. Figure 2(a) shows the equivalent circuit
for the N-way Doherty PA’s ideal current source. Load
modulation is conducted by the fundamental current
ratio between the carrier and peaking PAs. Because
the output voltage is determined by summation of
the load current multiplied by load impedance, the
output impedance of the carrier PA is varied by the
load current delivered by the peaking PAs. The current ratio and impedance variation of the Doherty PAs
are shown in Figure 2(b). From (1), we can calculate
the load impedance of each PA determined by the load
modulation behavior. If input voltage is smaller than
1/N, the load impedance of carrier PA is N # Ro due to
the quarter-wave-length impedance inverter and the
load impedance of peaking PA is infinity because of
zero load current. After the peaking PA is turned on,
the load impedance of each amplifier can be derived
by the active load-pull principle [12].
5
N # Ro,
IP
11
IC
IC R o
b# ,
IP
N
Vin
1
,
Vin,max
N
Vin
1
,
#1
N
Vin,max
0,
ZP 5 `,
5 a1 1
0,
Vin
1
,
Vin,max
N
Vin
1
,
# 1,
N
Vin,max
(1)
where Vin is the input voltage, Vin,max is the maximum
input voltage, and 1/N is the input voltage of turning
peaking PA on (N–way Doherty).
In (1), ZC and ZP are the load impedances of the
carrier and peaking PAs, respectively. IC and IP represent the total drain current of the carrier and peaking PAs. For simple comparison, the two-way and
three-way Doherty PA’s operations are depicted in
the left graph in Figure 2(b) and (c). The current levels for the unit cells of the carrier and peaking PAs
are depicted in Figure 2(b). The peaking PAs of the
two-way and three-way Doherty PA are turned on at
one-half and one-third of the input voltage, respectively, and the modulated load impedances of the
unit cells for two-way and three-way Doherty PAs
are described in Figure 2(b).
For the conventional two-way Doherty PA, the
carrier PA maintains a load impedance of 2 # R o while
the peaking PA is turned off, and the carrier PA
delivers the first maximum efficiency at one-half of
August 2010
0.8
0.7
0.6
Efficiency (%)
ZC 5 N # Ro,
its peak output power. When considering the overall output power of a Doherty PA, one-half of the
carrier PA’s peak output power means one-fourth of
the Doherty PA’s peak output power. Accordingly,
maximum efficiency is achieved at 6 dB backed-off
output power from the Doherty PA’s peak power.
After the peaking PA is turned on, the carrier PA
always maintains the maximum efficiency because
the load-line always reaches to the knee region in
the I-V curve, indicating that the carrier amplifier’s
fundamental output voltage always maintains the
maximum magnitude and so the maximum efficiency [see Figure 2(c)].
For the three-way Doherty PA, the carrier PA maintains a 3 # R o load impedance while the peaking PAs
are turned off. The back-off level for the first maximum efficiency is 29.54 dB from the Doherty PA’s peak
power, the 20 # log 1 N 2 3 dB 4 backed-off output power
level. Above the 29.54 dB backed-off output power, the
two peaking PAs are turned on simultaneously, and
the carrier PA maintains a highly efficient state due to
operation in the knee region.
The load impedance of the unit peaking PA [ZP
in Figure 2(b)] of the N-way Doherty PA is changed
from very large value to Ro. At the power, when the
peaking PA is off, the impedance is an open due to
zero load current. At the peak output power, all of
the unit PAs’ load impedances converge to Ro because
of the same load current from each PA and all of the
unit PAs reach the other maximum efficiency point.
The load impedance derived in (1) is depicted in Figure 2(c), and the dynamic load-lines of each unit cell
are visualized in Figure (3). Consequently, the N-way
Class B
Two Way
Three Way
Three Stage*
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Important
Operation
Region
PGD of
802.16e Mobile WiMAX
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Output Back Off (W)
1
Three Stage* :
Three Stage I Doherty PA with 1:2:3 Size Ratio,
Three Stage II Doherty PA with 1:1:1 Size Ratio
Figure 3. Efficiency characteristics of various Doherty
power amplifiers and class B power amplifiers versus
the normalized output power. The power generation
distribution for a Mobile WiMAX signal is also shown.
75
The efficiency of the Doherty
amplifier is its most important
characteristic.
Doherty PA maintains a superior efficiency compared to the class B PA over the whole output power
region by employing load modulation. Accordingly,
improved average efficiency can be expected for
amplification of modulated signals with high PAPRs.
The efficiency profile is shown in the next section
together with those of the class B PA and three-stage
Doherty PA (see Figure 3).
Linearity of the Doherty Amplifier
For the ideal Doherty operation, the Doherty PA maintains a linear gain response for all output power levels
through proper load modulation. At low input powers,
when only the carrier amplifier is turned on, the carrier amplifier of the N-way Doherty PA has an N # Ro
load impedance, and the gain is increased N times.
However, the input power of the carrier amplifier is
1/N times the total input power because of the inputpower divider. This input power loss is compensated
by the high gain. Accordingly, the Doherty PA maintains the same gain as a normal PA (PA under Ro load
impedance with the full input power) when the peaking PAs are turned off. The carrier amplifier reaches its
maximum efficiency at the backed-off output power of
20 # log 1 N 2 3 dB 4 from the peak power of the Doherty
amplifier [14].
After the peaking PAs are turned on, the gain of the
carrier PA is reduced due to the lower load impedance
gm3 Peaking Bias
of Two Way
Peaking Biases
of Three Way
Vgs
Carrier Bias
(a)
gm5
Carrier Bias
Peaking Bias
of Two Way
Vgs
Peaking Biases
of Three Way
(b)
Figure 4. Normalized harmonic generation coefficient
curves of the FETs versus biases. (a) Normalized gm3 and
(b) gm5 curves.
76
(load modulation), but the gain is compensated by the
peaking PAs, and the overall gain of the Doherty PA
is constant. Thus, a linear amplitude modulation to
amplitude modulation (AM-AM) response, that is, the
flat gain response as a function of output power, can
be achieved.
For the real case, the carrier and peaking amplifiers
have nonlinear characteristics like any PAs. However,
the Doherty amplifier can be linearized by using
different gate bias points for each PA to cancel their
harmonics. The nonlinear output current of an active
device can be approximated using a Taylor series
expansion [12], [14] by
6 Iout 5 gm1 # vi 1 gm2 # v2i 1 gm3 # v3i
1gm4 # v4i 1gm5 # v5i 1 # # # ,
(2)
where vi is an input voltage and the gmxs are the xthorder expansion coefficients of the nonlinear transconductance. The PA’s dominant harmonic currents near
the fundamental currents are the third-order intermodulation distortion (IMD3) current and fifth-order
intermodulation distortion (IMD5) current, and they
are mainly generated by the gm3 # vi3 and gm5 # vi5 terms
of (2), respectively. The transconductances of the
carrier and peaking PAs are dependent on the quiescent gate bias point. Figure 4 shows the third and
fifth harmonic generation coefficients of an laterally
diffused MOSFET (LDMOSFET) as a function of the
gate bias voltage.
Generally, the carrier PA is biased in a class AB
mode, and the peaking PAs are biased in a class C
mode to turn off at low power so that only the carrier PA is operating in the linear class AB mode. For
higher input power levels, the peaking PA is turned
on, and the carrier PA generates harmonic current
due to operation in the saturated region. The coefficients of the harmonics generated are dependent on
the gate bias as shown in Figure 4. For the class AB
biased carrier amplifier and class C biased peaking
amplifier, the generated third harmonics have opposite polarities and the third harmonic nonlinearity are
cancelled. Therefore, adjusting the gate biases of the
carrier and peaking PAs properly, a large portion of
the harmonics from each PA can be cancelled out and
linear operation is obtained across a broad output
power range levels.
As shown in Figure 4, the two-way Doherty PA
can cancel out an IMD3 component by adjusting the
gm3. On the other hand, the three-way Doherty PA can
obtain not only gm3 but also gm5 cancellation using the
two peaking PAs with different quiescent bias points
[14]. We can explain this behavior in another way: The
peaking PA is operated at a positive gm3, creating a gain
expansion, and the carrier PA is operated at a negative
gm3, creating gain compression. The gain compression
August 2010
Figure 5(a) is a widely known structure [17] (here
we call it three-stage I). The topology is a parallel
combination of one Doherty PA used as a carrier PA
with an additional peaking PA. The first peaking PA
modulates the load of the carrier PA initially and the
second peaking PA modulates the load of the previous Doherty stage at a higher power. The topology
in Figure 5(b) has recently been reported by NXP
[18] (here we call it a three-stage II). This topology
is a parallel combination of one carrier PA and one
Doherty PA used as a peaking PA. Both the threestage and the three-way architectures use three PA
of the carrier PA is compensated by the gain expansion of the peaking PA. However, the efficiency of the
Doherty amplifier is its most important characteristic.
Currently, the most popular design approach to design
these amplifiers is to adjust the biases for maximum
efficiency and recover the linearity using a digital predisortion algorithm.
Architecture of the Three-Stage
Doherty Power Amplifier
There are two kinds of three-stage Doherty PA
architectures as shown in Figure 5(a) and (b).
Offset
Line
Carrier PA
Output Combiner
Ro∠θc
Offset
Compensation
λ /4
(Zo3)
Peaking PA 1
Ro∠θp1
λ /4
(Zo2)
Ro ∠(90°
+ θc – θp1)
Peaking PA 2
Ro∠θp2
λ/4
(Zo1)
Ro ∠(180°
+ θc – θp2)
Ro
(a)
Offset
Compensation
Carrier PA
λ /4
(Zo1)
Offset
Line
Ro ∠θc
Ro ∠(90°
+ θp1 – θc)
λ/4
(Zo3)
Peaking PA 1
λ/4
(Zo2)
λ /4
(Zo4)
Ro ∠θp1
Ro
Ro
Y
Peaking PA 2
Ro ∠θp2
Ro ∠(90°
+ θp1 – θp2)
Output Combiner
(b)
Figure 5. Schematics of the three-stage Doherty power amplifiers. (a) Previously reported three-stage Doherty power
amplifier and (b) new three-stage Doherty power amplifier.
August 2010
77
Ids
ImaxP
∗ ImaxC : ImaxP1 : ImaxP2 = 1 : 2 : 2
IC
IP1
IP2
ImaxC
Vin
0
0.33
0.6
(a)
1
Vmax
1
Vmax
Ids
Imax
IC
IP1
IP2
Vin
0
0.33 0.6
(b)
Figure 6. Fundamental current profiles of each power
amplifier. (a) Three-stage I Doherty power amplifier (1:2:2)
and (b) three-stage II Doherty power amplifier (1:1:1).
units, but the two peaking PAs are turned on sequentially in the three-stage Doherty PA instead of simultaneously like a multistage amplifier. Thus, three
peak efficiency points are formed: at the two turn-on
points and at the peak power. In the three-way structure, the peaking PAs are turned on simultaneously,
similarly to N-way power combining. To achieve
proper load modulation, the three-way Doherty PA
requires two quarter-wavelength transmission lines,
TABLE 1. The design formula for the three-stage I
and II Doherty power amplifier.
Characteristic
Impedance
Z01
Z02
Z03
Z04
*
Three-Stage I
Using Different
Size
R0 #
R0 #
m2
Å 1 1 m1 1 m2
m1 # m2
Å 1 1 1 m1 2 2
R0 # "m1
–
Three-Stage II
Using Identical
Size
3 #
R0
ÅY
3 #
R0
Å4 # Y
R0
1 #
R0
ÅY
(Three-stage I) Carrier PA : First Peaking PA : Second Peaking PA = 1 : m1 : m2
(Three-stage II) Carrier PA : First Peaking PA : Second Peaking PA = 1 : 1 : 1
Y is the impedance transforming ratio of the quarter-wavelength transmission
line (Z04) and can be chosen for design convenience.
*
78
but the three-stage I and three-stage II Doherty PAs
require three and four quarter-wavelength transmission lines, respectively.
There is no known circuit solution to implement the three-stage I shown in Figure 5(a) with
a uniform gain and proper uneven power combining simultaneously. To maintain a flat gain profile
versus power level, as mentioned earlier, the input
dividing loss of the carrier PA should be compensated
by the high gain arising from load modulation. But
the three-stage I Doherty PA cannot provide enough
load modulation for the carrier PA to compensate for
the loss. Accordingly, gain at the low output power
region, where only the carrier PA is operating, is
lower than that of the Doherty PA at the peak output
power. This gain fluctuation, indicating a nonlinear
AM-AM characteristic, is a big problem of the threestage I Doherty PA. However the three-stage I Doherty
amplifier can be designed, with proper output power
combining, using different unit cell sizes. This is done
by shaping the input power dividing ratio for each PA
according to power level [15] or by controlling the gate
biases of the PAs according to the input power level
to generate the proper current from the PAs. We will
revisit this issue later. Here, it is assumed that suitable
PA currents are generated for the output powers to be
combined, achieving the three maximum efficiency
points with maximum peak power.
The three-stage II can be designed using identical PAs having the same peak envelope power. The
carrier PA’s load impedance for this case is changed
from 3 # Ro to Ro , which is similar to the three-way
Doherty PA. Thus, this amplifier theoretically
provides a uniform gain across input power level.
Figure 6 shows the ideal current profiles of each PA
when the PAs in a three-stage I Doherty PA have
the proper load modulation. For the three-stage I,
saturated operation of the carrier PA with constant
current is required to get proper output power combining as shown in Figure 6(a). This highly saturated
operation causes gate current flow for GaN HEMT.
This is another problem of the three-stage I Doherty
PA. Since the GaN HEMTs power devices are favored
because of their high efficiency and power density,
this is a serious limitation of the three-stage I when
taken together with the issue of nonuniform gain. By
contrast, the three-stage II does not have those problems and is currently the favored choice.
Design Considerations for Three-Stage
Doherty Power Amplifiers
Choosing the Proper Impedance
Transformation Ratio Y
The design formulae for the three-stage I and II are
summarized in Table 1. The size ratio between the
carrier and peaking PAs of the three-stage I Doherty
August 2010
PA is defined as 1:m1:m2, where m1 and m2 are the optimum sizes of the first peaking PA and second peaking PA relative to the carrier PA, respectively, and m1
and m2 are larger than one. The Y in the three-stage
II design is the impedance transforming ratio from
output load Ro to the power combining point through
the quarter-wave-length transmission line, Z04 [see
Figure 5(b)].
The selection of Y is important in the design of
the Doherty PA because it determines the peaking
PAs’ output impedance (R out) and the characteristic impedances of the other quarter-wave-length
transmission lines simultaneously. The high output impedance of the peaking PA in the off state
is essential, otherwise the carrier PA’s output
power leaks through, reducing the output power
and efficiency. For the three-stage II, the peaking
PAs are connected to the output power combining
node (Vo) through two quarter-wave-length transmission lines as shown in Figure 7(a). As shown in
the figure, the variables M, P, Q, and Z are defined
as the characteristic impedance ratios of the
quarter-wavelength transmission lines. The final
out put impedance (Rout) of
the peaking PA is determined by the values of P # Ro
and Q # Ro as follows:
Load modulation suitable for Doherty
operation can be achieved from the
three-stage II topology.
Therefore, a large reduction of s is not recommended.
In this article, we assume that the s value is 0.8–1,
which does not affect the output impedance of the
peaking PA (R′out). The Rout expansion from R′out is
shown in Figure 7(b) [14]. As shown in the figure, if
all of the unit PAs are matched to Ro V, a Y parameter above 0.75 makes the Rout decrease and can disturb
the proper load modulation. On the other hand, the
selection of a small Y value can cause the line-width
problems for the quarter-wave transformer (M) for the
carrier amplifier due to the resulting high characteristic
impedance. Therefore, the Y values have to be selected
considering the peaking PA’s output impedance and
the line-width of the quarter-wave-length transmission
line on a given substrate. In the following examples,
we use a Y value of 0.75, s of 1, and TACONIC’s TLY-5
substrate (er 5 2.2) for a real implementation.
(Zo1)
M · Ro ∠90°
λ /4
Offset
Thus, as the parameter Y
becomes smaller, Rout becomes
higher, and the leakage
through the peaking PA can
be minimized. If the matching impedance of the peaking
PA at the maximum output
power is not matched to Ro V
but rather to s # Ro V, an
arbitrarily chosen impedance,
Rout becomes:
6 Rout 5
3
r
# Rout
. (4)
4#s#Y
Consequently, Rout at the
output node (Vo) is inversely
proportional to the two
parameters Y and s However,
if the matching impedance of
the peaking PA is decreased,
the output impedance of
the peaking PA (R′out) is also
reduced because the characteristic impedance of the
offset-line is also decreased.
August 2010
Carrier
Offset
Peaking 1
(Zo2)
Q · Ro ∠90°
λ /4
(Zo3)
P · Ro ∠90°
λ /4
′
Rout
Vo
(Zo4)
Z · Ro ∠90°
λ /4
Ro /Y
Rout
Ro
Offset
Peaking 2
(a)
(Q/P)2
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.2
Y
Q 2 r
3
r
6 Rout a b # Rout
5 # # Rout
.
P
4 Y
(3)
1.1
1
1
0.9
Output Impedance (Rout)
Expansion Region
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.85
0.9
σ
(b)
0.95
1
Figure 7. (a) Output circuit topology of the three-stage II Doherty power amplifier and
(b) output impedance (Rout) at the output combining node (Vo) versus Y and s.
79
The three-stage Doherty PA has about
10% improved efficiency compared
to the two-way and three-way
Doherty PA.
Ids
Imax
0–0.33
0.33–0.5
0.5– 1
Ro
2Ro
Imax/2
3Ro
Imax/3
Vdc
(a)
Vds
Ids
Imax
Ro
4Ro
Efficiency Comparison of N-way and
Three-Stage Doherty Power Amplifiers
Imax/4
Vdc
(b)
Vds
Vdc
(c)
Vds
Ids
Imax
Ro
Imax/4
Figure 8. Load lines of three-stage II power amplifier with
1:1:1 ratio. (a) Carrier power amplifier, (b) first peaking
power amplifier, and (c) second peaking power amplifier.
Load Modulation of the
Three-Stage II Doherty Power Amplifier
Load modulation suitable for Doherty operation
can be achieved from the three-stage II topology, and
Figure 8 illustrates its dynamic load lines with identical unit PAs. In the region of 0–0.33 of Vin /Vmax, only
the carrier PA operates, and in the region of 0.33–0.5,
the carrier and one peaking PA operate. All of the
PAs are turned on in the region of 0.5–1. The carrier
80
PA maintains a 3 # Ro load impedance when the peaking PAs are turned off. Thus, at the 29.54 dB backedoff output power, the carrier PA’s load-line reaches
the knee region and operates at maximum efficiency
since full power is generated from the carrier amplifier for this bias condition. In this region, the first
peaking PA is turned on. The load impedance of this
PA is converted from open to 4 # Ro.
The second maximum efficiency point is achieved
when the output power is backed off 6 dB from the
peak power. In this case, the load impedances of the
carrier and first peaking PAs are modulated to 2 # Ro
and 4 # Ro , respectively. Above 26 dB backed-off output power, the first peaking PA also maintains maximum efficiency due to output impedance of 4 # Ro.
As the input power increases, the second peaking PA is turned on, and at the peak power, the load
impedances of all PAs are converted to Ro , forming the
third maximum efficiency point. Since each PA has a
maximum efficiency before the other PAs are turned
on, the three-stage II Doherty PA has three maximum
efficiency points as a function of input power level. The
three-stage I PA has a similar output-combining characteristic under the condition of proper current generation, depicted in Figure 6(a).
As described earlier, the N-way Doherty PA has two
maximum efficiency points, and the three-stage Doherty
PAs have three maximum efficiency points as a function of output power level [5]–[7], [12]. The back-off
levels with the maximum efficiencies are determined
by the size ratios of the peaking PAs to the carrier PA
[15], [18]. In Table 2, the back-off levels for maximum
efficiency of the various Doherty PAs are summarized.
In Figure 3, the efficiency characteristics of the three
kinds of Doherty PAs are illustrated when all of the
PAs are biased in class B mode under ideal conditions.
Among the several three-stage Doherty PAs, the threestage Doherty PA I and II that have maximum efficiencies at 26 dB and 29.54 dB backed-off output power
are plotted to simplify comparison to the two-way and
three-way Doherty PA. The three-stage Doherty PA
maintains relatively flat and high efficiency as a function of output power level due to the three maximum
points, compared to those of the two-way and threeway Doherty PAs.
For a modulated signal excitation, the average drain
efficiency (DE) can be calculated as follows [19]:
6 DE 5
e prob # 1 Vin 2 # Pout 1 Vin 2 dvin
,
e prob # 1 Vin 2 # Pdc 1 Vin 2 dvin
(5)
where prob·(Vin) is the probability of the occurrence of
a voltage value of Vin for the modulated input signal,
August 2010
and it is based on the Rayleigh distriTABLE 2. The back-off levels for peak efficiency
bution. The overall DE is determined
and average drain efficiency of the N-way and three-stage
by the ratio of the multiplication of the
Doherty power amplifiers using an 802.16e Mobile WiMAX signal
probability distribution and the power
with 8.5 dB peak-to-average power ratio.
generation term (Pout) over the multiN-way
Back-off
DEAvg
plication of the distribution and the dc
power (Pdc). The numerator of the above
Two-way
59%
26 dB
function is defined as the power generaThree-way
61.2%
29.54 dB
tion distribution (PGD) of the Doherty PA
[7], [11]. In Figure 3, the PGD is shown
Three-Stage I Cell Size Ratio
Back-off
DEAvg
for several kinds of Doherty Amplifier
(Carrier : Peaking 1 : Peaking 2)
for an 802.16e mobile WiMAX signal
1:2:2
69.8%
24.44/29.54 dB
with 8.5 dB PAPR.
1:2:3
69.4%
26/29.54 dB
The distribution shown in Figure 3
indicates the dominant region of oper1:3:3
70.5%
24.87/212 dB
ation (0.03 ' 0.37) for amplification of
1:3:4
71%
26/212 dB
the modulated signal, and the instantaneous efficiency in this region signifiThree-Stage II Cell Size Ratio
Back-off
DEAvg
cantly affects the PA’s overall efficiency
(Carrier : Peaking 1 : Peaking 2)
for amplification of a modulated signal.
1:1:1
69.4%
26/29.54 dB
Accordingly, in this important region
of operation (which is highlighted in
1:2:2
70.1%
26/213.98 dB
Figure 3), the three-stage Doherty PA
2:3:3
71%
26/212 dB
delivers high efficiency while the twoway and three-way Doherty PAs do
not. In Table 2, the calculated average
TABLE 3. Measured average performance of the two three-stage
efficiencies of the various Doherty PAs
Doherty power amplifiers with gate bias control after linearization
for WiMAX signal excitation are preusing an 802.16e Mobile WiMAX signal.
sented. The three-stage Doherty PA has
After
about 10% improved efficiency comDE Avg
RCE
Linearization Signal
Pout Avg
pared to the two-way and three-way
Three-stage I
WiMAX @ 8.5 dB PAPR
36.85 dBm 55.46% 237.23 dB
Doherty PA. In Table 3, the measured
performance of three-stage Doherty
Three-stage II
WiMAX @ 7.8 dB PAPR
42.54 dBm 55.4%
233.15 dB
amplifier for WiMAX signal excitation
are presented. It is clearly shown that
the three-stage Doherty PA is the most efficient strucpower from the class-C-biased peaking PA, the input
ture for amplification of the WiMAX signal with high
power should be large, resulting in over-driving the
PAPR signals.
carrier PA. PAs of the three-stage Doherty architecture
are turned sequentially as the input power increases.
Thus, the three-stage PAs’ gate biases are much lower
Behavior of Real Doherty Amplifiers
than that of the N-way Doherty case, and the load
cannot be modulated completely in the peak-power
Effects of Unequal PA Currents
region, even worse than in the N-way Doherty PA.
and Constant Transconductance
Due to the incomplete load modulation, we cannot
The behavior of the Doherty amplifiers we have
simultaneously achieve both high efficiency and high
described so far assumes that all of the PAs based on
peak power as we have described so far.
the same size device reach the same current level at the
One method to overcome the problem of incomplete
same maximum input power even though their biases
load modulation due to unequal currents is to employ
are different. Because each PA is turned on one-by-one
an uneven input power drive technique [20]. The
as the input power level increases (with the peaking
peaking PA with a low gate bias gets more input power
PAs turned on at higher input powers than the carrier
than the carrier PA. In this way, the current from the
PA), the current levels of each PA are different: lower
peaking PA increases faster after it is turned on, genfor the cells that turn on later. As well, it should not be
erating the current shown by Figure 8(b)(c). But this
assumed that the currents of each device are the same
reduces the linear gain because of the low input to the
even though the sizes of the PAs are the same. Specarrier PA, and the load modulation is not sufficient
cifically, the peaking PAs of the N-way Doherty PA are
to achieve high efficiency at both the backed-off outbiased in a class C mode for turn-on operation at the
put power level and at peak power. Another method to
required input power level. Therefore, to get the full
August 2010
81
Because each PA is turned on one-by-one
as the input power level increases the
current levels of each PA are different.
Quiescent Bias Point
Class B
compensate for unequal values is to input a different
modulated signal for each PA such that the combined
output recovers the original signal [15]. In this case,
we need to generate a new input signal appropriate for
Doherty operation.
Gate Bias Adaptation of the Peaking
Power Amplifiers in Three-Stage II Circuit
180˚
A simple alternative method is to control the gate
bias of the peaking PAs [21]. Generally, gate bias
control of the Doherty PA is employed for accurate
intermodulation cancellation. But we may also use
gate bias control of the peaking PA for performance
optimization, that is, to simultaneously achieve high
efficiency at the backed-off input power and at high
peak powers [17].
To illustrate the effects of gate-bias adaptation, operation of a three-stage II Doherty PA with gate bias adaptation was investigated through the Matlab simulations.
Identical-size unit PAs were in a three-stage II Doherty
PA design, and we assumed that all of the PAs had constant gm characteristics for simplicity. If the carrier PA
is biased for class B mode, the current conduction angle,
Peaking PA 1
151.05˚
Class C
141.06˚
Peaking PA 2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Input Voltage
1.2
Fundamental Drain Voltage (V)
Fundamental Drain Current (A)
Figure 9. Optimum gate bias shapes for the peaking power
amplifiers versus the normalized input voltage for threestage II power amplifier with 1:1:1 ratio.
*Maximum Fundamental
Current Magnitude
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
–0.2
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Normalized Input Voltage
(a)
1
Fundamental Current (A)
300
Load Impedance (Ω)
250
200
150
100
50
0
*Ro
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Normalized Input Voltage
(c)
1
Carrier PA
Peaking PA 1
Peaking PA 2
35
30
*dc Drain Bias
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Normalized Input Voltage
(b)
5
10
15
20
Fundamental Voltage (V)
(d)
25
1
30
Thin : Without GA
Thick : With GA
Figure 10. Simulation result of the three-stage II Doherty power amplifier with and without the gate bias adaptation
(GA). (a) Fundamental drain currents, (b) fundamental drain voltages, (c) fundamental load impedance, and (d) fundamental
load lines of each power amplifier.
82
August 2010
August 2010
3.54 dB. Since the load lines of the two peaking PAs
do not reach the knee region due to the low quiescent
bias point, the two peaking PAs have low efficiencies at
80
Efficiency (%)
70
60 Thin : Without GA
Thick : With GA
DETotal
40
20
30
34
(With)
With
3.54 dB
Carrier PA
Peaking PA 1
Peaking PA 2
32
DETotal
(Without)
50
30
Gain (dB)
over one period of 360° would be constant: 180° for all
input voltage magnitudes. In this case, the fundamental current of the PA would be linearly proportional
to the input voltage level. However, the conduction
angles of the peaking PAs will be changed because of
the class C mode with smaller conduction angle than
180°. Therefore, the fundamental current and dc current
of the peaking PAs should be determined according to
the conduction angle. Using this information, we can
explain the behavior of the Doherty PA.
For the simulation, the conduction angle of the carrier PA at the full-power state was set to 180° (class B),
and those of the peaking PAs to 151° (class C) and 141°
(class C) to turn on the PAs sequentially. The applied
dc drain bias (Vdc) was 30 V. The gate bias control voltage versus the normalized input voltage magnitude is
illustrated in Figure 9. The bias on each peaking PA
was increased from a class C mode toward class B to
generate the maximum output from each at the maximum input power.
Figure 10 illustrates simulation results of the
three-stage II with and without gate bias adaptation
of the peaking PAs. Figure 10(a) shows the simulated fundamental drain current of each PA. Without
gate bias adaptation, the fundamental drain current
of the first and second peaking PAs did not reach
1 A (which is the maximum drain current for each
PA) due to the low gate bias. Figure 10(b) shows the
fundamental drain voltage variation versus normalized input voltage. As expected from Figure 10(a),
the two peaking PAs’ drain voltages were lower
than the maximum applied voltage of 30 V. In particular, the fundamental current and voltage of the
second peaking PA were significantly lower due to
insufficient load modulation. The load impedance
variation of each current source is presented in Figure 10(c). None of the PAs reached the required load
impedance above 0.33 of the normalized input power
level. Specifically, the load impedance of the peaking
PAs did not converge to Ro , and a serious degradation of the peak power was experienced.
However, after applying gate bias adaptation,
the fundamental drain current and voltage of each
PA properly increased, indicating proper Doherty
operation. In Figure 10(d), the simulated load lines
of each PA are illustrated, based on the data in
Figure 10(a) and (b), showing only the lower than
30 V for simplicity. As shown in Figure 10(d), without gate bias adaptation, the peaking PAs did not
reach the knee region due to improper load modulation. After applying the gate adaptation, the carrier
and peaking PAs operated properly, following the
knee region, and all of the PAs reached the 1 A maximum current level.
Figure 11(a) presents the simulated efficiency characteristics of each PA versus output power. Improper
load modulation reduces the peak power by about
Without
36 38 40 42 44
Output Power (dBm)
(a)
46
48
16
15
14
With GA
13
12
11
10
Without GA
9
8
7
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
Output Power (dBm)
(b)
Figure 11. Simulated (a) efficiency and (b) gain
characteristics of the three-stage II Doherty power amplifier
with and without the gate bias control. DE: drain efficiency.
Input
Dividing
Circuit
Gate
Drain
Carrier PA
First Peaking PA
Gate Bias
Drain
Adaptation
Output
Combining
Circuit
Second Peaking PA
Gate Bias
Adaptation
Drain
Figure 12. Photograph of a three-stage I Doherty power
amplifier.
83
the backed-off output power.
Simulated gain versus output
DE
power level is depicted in FigPAE
60
20
Gain
ure 11(b). The calculated gain
flatness is improved from
55
55.4% 18
3.8 dB to 1 dB after applying
50
16
the gate bias control tech46.9%
nique, indicating much more
45
14
linear AM-AM characterisFirst Back Off
40
12
tics. These simulation results
±3 dB
clearly show that the load
35
10
modulation behavior of the
30
normal three-stage II Doherty
8
44.4 dBm
Second Back Off
PA is limited, but that the lim25
6
itation can be removed by the
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
gate bias control technique.
Output Power (dBm)
(a)
Improper load modula65
22
tion due to the low quiesDE
cent bias point is common
20
60
PAE
Gain
to both three-stage Doherty
57%
18
55
PAs, but the problem can
53%
be solved by adaptation. To
16
50
demonstrate this, the two
kinds of three-stage Doherty
45
14
PAs were implemented for
40
12
gate bias verification.
±1 dB
The three-stage I Doherty
35
10
PAs, which have different
30
8
sizes of unit PAs, were impleSecond Back Off First Back Off
44.54 dBm
mented using Freescale’s 4
25
6
W and 10 W PEP LDMOS28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
44
46
FETs for the 1:2:2 Doherty
Output Power (dBm)
PA which is shown in Fig(b)
ure 12. Measured results
versus output power level
Figure 13. Measured results of a 1:2:2 three-stage I Doherty power amplifier. Drain
for a one-tone signal are
efficiency (DE), power added efficiency (PAE) and gain performance (a) without and
summarized in Figure 13(a)
(b) with gate bias control for one-tone signal.
without bias adaptation and
(b) with the gate bias control. The PA without adaptation has serious gain
–20
degradation due to the improper load modulation,
resulting in PAE degradation. Above the second
backed-off output power region, the three-stage I
–30
–17.7 dBc
Doherty PA without gate control has a 46.9% PAE
and 63 dB gain flatness. To achieve the same peak
–40
power from the three-stage I Doherty PA without
–39.8 dBc
gate bias control, 5.3 dB or more input of power is
–50
Before
needed and the carrier PA is seriously saturated.
Linearization
On the other hand, the PA with the adaptation has a
–60
significantly improved PAE and gain flatness, 53%
After Linearization
and 61 dB, respectively, without the hard saturated
–70
operation of the carrier PA.
0.990 0.995 1.000 1.005 1.010
Figure 14 shows the output spectra of the threeFrequency (GHz)
stage I Doherty PA before and after linearization. The
input signal is an 802.16e Mobile WiMAX signal with
Figure 14. Measured output spectra of a three-stage I
8.5 dB PAPR. In this work, employing the digital feedDoherty power amplifier with gate bias adaptation before and
back predistortion (DFBPD) algorithm [3], the adjacent
after the linearization at an average output power of 37 dBm.
Gain (dB)
Gain (dB)
PSD (100 kHz RBW, 10 dB/div.)
DE, PAE (%)
22
DE, PAE (%)
65
84
August 2010
16
45
14
40
12
35
10
30
8
25
20
38
With GA (Gain)
Without GA (Gain)
39
6
40
41
42
Output Power (dBm)
With GA (DE)
Without GA (DE)
43
4
44
With GA (PAE)
Without GA (PAE)
(b)
Figure 16. Measured (a) drain efficiency (DE), gain, and
power added efficiency (PAE) characteristics of a three-stage
II Doherty power amplifier with gate bias adaptation, and (b)
performance comparison of the power amplifier with and without
gate bias adaptation for an 802.16e Mobile WiMAX signal.
August 2010
PSD (100 kHz RBW, 10 dB/div.)
Gain (dB)
50
Gain (dB)
DE, PAE (%)
DE, PAE (%)
channel leakage ratio at a
3.572-MHz offset is linearized
Gate Bias
to 239.8 dBc. Comparing the
Adaptation
Drain
PAs with and without the
gate bias control, the PAE
characteristic of the proposed
First Peaking PA
three-stage I Doherty PA is
improved by about 2.7% with
Gate Bias
a 2.5 dB enhanced gain at the
Adaptation
Output
Drain
same average output power
Combiner
of 37 dBm. After linearization,
the proposed PA has a 52.14%
PAE and 55.46% DE at an
Second Peaking PA
average output power of 36.85
dBm, which is 7.7 dB backed
Drain
Gate
off from the peak power. The
relative constellation error is
also enhanced to 237.23 dB,
successfully satisfying the
Carrier PA
system specification.
To implement the threestage
II Doherty PA, a class
Figure 15. Photograph of a three-stage II Doherty power amplifier.
AB mode PA was designed
at 2.655 GHz using Cree’s CGH40045 GaN HEMT
24
65
device. The quiescent bias current of the carrier PA is
DE
59.1%
22
60
55 mA, and the PA delivers a 64.6% DE at an output
PAE
20
Gain
55
power of 46.4 dBm. The implemented PA with 1:1:1
54.6%
18
16
50
ratio is shown in Figure 15. The measured performance
14
efficiency is illustrated in Figure 16(a). This amplifier
45
12
was employed for amplification of an 802.16e Mobile
40
10
WiMAX signal with 7.8 dB PAPR. Figure 16(b) shows
8
35
6
the measured efficiency of the envelope tracking three30
4
Second Back Off
50.5
dBm
stage II Doherty PA with and without gate bias adapta25
2
(PEP)
First Back Off
tion. As expected from the Matlab simulation, efficiency
0
20
and gain of the three-stage Doherty PA with the gate
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
Output Power (dBm)
bias adaptation are significantly improved along the
(a)
backed-off average output power level. The measured
20
60
output spectra before and after linearization are pre18
55
sented in Figure 17. Employing the DFBPD algorithm,
–30
–40
–17.7 dBc
–50
–60
–40 dBc
Before
Linearization
–70
After Linearization
–80
2.63
2.64
2.65
2.66
2.67
Frequency (GHz)
2.68
Figure 17. Measured output spectra of a three-stage II
Doherty PA before and after linearization at an average
output power of 42.54 dBm.
85
the adjacent channel leakage ratio at a 6.05-MHz offset
is linearized to 240 dBc while maintaining the efficiency of 55.45% at an average output power of 42.54
dBm, 8 dB backed off from the peak power level. The
relative constellation error is also enhanced to 233.15
dB, successfully satisfying the system specification.
These experimental results clearly show that a threestage Doherty PA with the gate bias adaptation technique has superior efficiency with a high peak power.
It can be considered a promising candidate for a highly
efficient transmitter.
Conclusions
This article briefly introduced design approaches and
issues for the N-way and three-stage Doherty PAs.
Two kinds of three-stage Doherty PA were introduced,
and the principles of operation and advantages of the
three-stage Doherty PAs were explained. For proper
load modulation, gate bias adaptation was described
and its operation investigated by Matlab simulation. We compared the average efficiencies of various
Doherty PAs under excitation by an the 802.16e Mobile
WiMAX signal. Simulations verified that three-stage
Doherty PAs have a high efficiency over a broad output power level.
For verification, the two kinds of three-stage
Doherty PAs were implemented using Freescale’s
LDMOSFETs and Cree’s GaN HEMT devices, and gate
bias adaptation was implemented using the envelope
tracking technique for efficient operation at a backedoff output power region while maintaining the peak
power. These experimental results clearly show that
the three-stage Doherty with envelope tracking technique has superior efficiency with a high peak power.
The linearity of these Doherty PAs are not good but
can be improved by DPD. Therefore, the three-stage
Doherty PA with gate bias adaptation could a very
good candidate for highly efficient transmitters for
base-station applications.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the The Ministry of
Knowledge Economy, Korea, under the Information
Technology Research Center support program supervised by the National IT Industry Promotion Agency
(NIPA2009-C1090-0902-0037) and WCU (World Class
University) program through the Korea Science and
Engineering Foundation, funded by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology (Project No. R312008-000-10100-0).
References
[1] J. Kim and K. Konstantinou, “Digital predistortion of wideband
signals based on power amplifier model with memory,” IEE Electron. Lett., vol. 37, no. 23, pp. 1417–1418, Nov. 2001.
[2] K. J. Muhonen, M. Kavehrad, and R. Krishnamoorthy, “Look-up
table techniques for adaptive digital predistortion: A development
86
and comparison,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 49, no. 5, pp.
1995–2002, Sept. 2000.
[3] Y. Woo, J. Kim, J. Yi, S. Hong, I. Kim, J. Moon, and B. Kim, “Adaptive digital feedback predistortion technique for linearizing power
amplifier,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 55, no. 5, pp.
932–940, May 2007.
[4] W. H. Doherty, “A new high efficiency power amplifier for modulated waves,” Proc. IRE., vol. 24, no. 9, pp. 1163–1182, Sept. 1936.
[5] F. H. Raab, “Efficiency of Doherty RF power-amplifier systems,”
IEEE Trans. Broadcast., vol. BC-33, no. 3, pp. 77–83, Sept. 1987.
[6] B. Kim, J. Kim, I. Kim, and J. Cha, “The Doherty power amplifier,”
IEEE Microwave Mag., vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 42–50, Oct. 2006.
[7] M. Iwamoto, A. Williams, P. Chen, A. G. Metzger, L. E. Larson, and
P. M. Asbeck, “An extended Doherty amplifier with high efficiency
over a wide power range,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol.
49, no. 12, pp. 2472–2479, Dec. 2001.
[8] F. Wang, D. F. Kimball, J. D. Popp, A. H. Yang, D. Y. Lie, P. M. Asbeck, and L. E. Larson, “An improved power-added efficiency 19dBm hybrid envelope elimination and restoration power amplifier
for 802.11g WLAN applications,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., vol. 54, no. 12, pp. 4086–4099, Dec. 2006.
[9] I. Kim, Y. Y. Woo, J. Kim, J. Moon, J. Kim, and B. Kim, “High-efficiency hybrid EER transmitter using optimized power amplifier,”
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 2582–2593,
Nov. 2008.
[10] D. F. Kimball, J. Jeong, C. Hsia, P. Draxler, S. Lanfranco, W. Nagy,
K. Linthicum, L. E. Larson, and P. M. Asbeck, “High-efficiency envelope-tracking W-CDMA base-station amplifier using GaN HFETs,”
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 54, no. 11, pp. 3848–3856,
Nov. 2006.
[11] I. Kim, J. Kim, J. Moon, and B. Kim, “Optimized envelope shaping for hybrid EER transmitter of mobile WiMAX-Optimized ET
operation,” IEEE Microwave Wireless Compon. Lett., vol. 19, no. 5, pp.
335–337, May 2009.
[12] S. C. Cripps, RF Power Amplifiers for Wireless Communications. Norwood, MA: Artech House, 2006.
[13] H. Deguchi, N. Ui, K. Ebihara, K. Inoue, N. Yoshimura, and H.
Takahashi, “A 33W GaN HEMT Doherty amplifier with 55% drain
efficiency for 2.6GHz base stations,” in IEEE MTT-S Int. Microwave
Symp. Dig., June 2009, pp. 1273–1276.
[14] Y. Yang, J. Cha, B. Shin, and B. Kim, “A fully matched N-way Doherty amplifier with optimized linearity,” IEEE Trans. Microwave
Theory Tech., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 986–993, Mar. 2003.
[15] M. J. Pelk, W. C. E. Neo, J. R. Gajadharsing, R. S. Pengelly, and L.
C. N. de Vreede, “A high-efficiency 100-W GaN three-way Doherty
amplifier for base-station applications,” IEEE Trans. Microwave
Theory Tech., vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 1582–1591, July 2008.
[16] IEEE 802.16-2004, “IEEE standard for local and metropolitan area
networks-part 16: Air interface for fixed broadband wireless access systems,” Oct. 2004.
[17] S. C. Cripps, Advanced Techniques in RF Power Amplifier Design.
Norwood, MA: Artech House, 2002.
[18] J. Gajadharsing, “Recent advances in Doherty amplifiers for wireless infrastructure,” in IEEE MTT- S Int. Microwave Symp. Workshop
WSC, June 2009.
[19] G. Hanington, P.-F. Chen, P. M. Asbeck, and L. E. Larson, “High
efficiency power amplifier using dynamic power-supply voltage
for CDMA applications,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol.
47, no. 8, pp. 1471–1476, Aug. 1999.
[20] J. Kim, J. Cha, I. Kim, and B. Kim, “Optimum operation of asymmetrical-cells-based linear Doherty power amplifiers—uneven
power drive and power matching,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory
Tech., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 1802–1809, May 2005.
[21] Y. Yang, J. Cha, B. Shin, and B. Kim, “A microwave Doherty amplifier employing envelope tracking technique for high efficiency
and linearity,” IEEE Microwave Wireless Compon. Lett., vol. 13, no. 9,
pp. 370–372, Sept. 2003.
August 2010