High Voltage, Bidirectional Current Shunt Monitor AD8210 FEATURES ±4000 V HBM ESD High common-mode voltage range −2 V to +65 V operating −5 V to +68 V survival Buffered output voltage 5 mA output drive capability Wide operating temperature range: −40°C to +125°C Ratiometric half-scale output offset Excellent ac and dc performance 3 μV/°C typical offset drift 10 ppm/°C typical gain drift 120 db typical CMRR at dc 80 db typical CMRR at 100 kHz Available in 8-lead SOIC FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM VSUPPLY IS RS +IN –IN V+ VS AD8210 LOAD VREF 1 G = +20 APPLICATIONS VREF 2 GND 05147-001 Current sensing Motor controls Transmission controls Diesel injection controls Engine management Suspension controls Vehicle dynamic controls DC-to-DC converters VOUT Figure 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION The AD8210 is a single-supply difference amplifier ideal for amplifying small differential voltages in the presence of large common-mode voltages. The operating input common-mode voltage range extends from −2 V to +65 V. The typical supply voltage is 5 V. The AD8210 is offered in a SOIC package. The operating temperature range is −40°C to +125°C. The output offset can be adjusted from 0.05 V to 4.9 V with a 5 V supply by using VREF1 pin and VREF2 pin. With the VREF1 pin attached to the V+ pin, and the VREF2 pin attached to the GND pin, the output is set at half scale. Attaching both VREF1 and VREF2 to GND causes the output to be unipolar, starting near ground. Attaching both VREF1 and VREF2 to V+ causes the output to be unipolar, starting near V+. Other offsets can be obtained by applying an external voltage to VREF1 and VREF2. Excellent ac and dc performance over temperature keep errors in the measurement loop to a minimum. Offset drift and gain drift are guaranteed to a maximum of 8 μV/°C and 20 ppm/°C, respectively. Rev. 0 Information furnished by Analog Devices is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, no responsibility is assumed by Analog Devices for its use, nor for any infringements of patents or other rights of third parties that may result from its use. Specifications subject to change without notice. No license is granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of Analog Devices. Trademarks and registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. One Technology Way, P.O. Box 9106, Norwood, MA 02062-9106, U.S.A. Tel: 781.329.4700 www.analog.com Fax: 781.461.3113 ©2006 Analog Devices, Inc. All rights reserved. AD8210 TABLE OF CONTENTS Features .............................................................................................. 1 Modes of Operation ....................................................................... 11 Applications....................................................................................... 1 Unidirectional Operation.......................................................... 11 Functional Block Diagram .............................................................. 1 Bidirectional Operation............................................................. 11 General Description ......................................................................... 1 Input Filtering ................................................................................. 13 Revision History ............................................................................... 2 Applications..................................................................................... 14 Specifications..................................................................................... 3 High-Side Current Sense with a Low-Side Switch................. 14 Absolute Maximum Ratings............................................................ 4 High-Side Current Sense with a High-Side Switch ............... 14 ESD Caution.................................................................................. 4 H-Bridge Motor Control ........................................................... 14 Pin Configuration and Function Descriptions............................. 5 Outline Dimensions ....................................................................... 15 Typical Performance Characteristics ............................................. 6 Ordering Guide .......................................................................... 15 Theory of Operation ...................................................................... 10 REVISION HISTORY 4/06—Revision 0: Initial Version Rev. 0 | Page 2 of 16 AD8210 SPECIFICATIONS TA = operating temperature range, VS = 5 V, unless otherwise noted. Table 1. Parameter GAIN Initial Accuracy Accuracy Over Temperature Gain Drift VOLTAGE OFFSET Offset Voltage (RTI) Over Temperature (RTI) Offset Drift INPUT Input Impedance Differential Common Mode Common Mode Common-Mode Input Voltage Range Differential Input Voltage Range Common-Mode Rejection AD8210 SOIC 1 Min Typ Max Unit Conditions ±0.5 ±0.7 20 V/V % % ppm/°C 25°C, VO ≥ 0.1 V dc TA ±1.0 ±1.8 ±8.0 mV mV μV/°C 20 2 5 3.5 −2 100 80 +65 250 120 95 80 80 OUTPUT Output Voltage Range Output Impedance DYNAMIC RESPONSE Small Signal −3 dB Bandwidth Slew Rate NOISE 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz, RTI Spectral Density, 1 kHz, RTI OFFSET ADJUSTMENT Ratiometric Accuracy 4 Accuracy, RTO Output Offset Adjustment Range VREF Input Voltage Range VREF Divider Resistor Values POWER SUPPLY Operating Range Quiescent Current Over Temperature Power Supply Rejection Ratio TEMPERATURE RANGE For Specified Performance 0.05 4.9 2 V Ω 450 3 kHz V/μs 7 70 μV p-p nV/√Hz 0.499 0.05 0.0 24 32 4.5 5.0 0.501 ±0.6 4.9 VS 40 V/V mV/V V V kΩ 5.5 2 V mA dB +125 °C 80 −40 kΩ MΩ kΩ V mV dB dB dB dB 1 25°C TA V common mode > 5 V V common mode < 5 V Common mode, continuous Differential 2 TA, f = dc, VCM > 5 V TA, f = dc to 100 kHz 3 , VCM < 5 V TA, f = 100 kHz3, VCM > 5 V TA, f = 40 kHz3, VCM > 5 V RL = 25 kΩ Divider to supplies Voltage applied to VREF1 and VREF2 in parallel VS = 5 V VCM > 5 V 5 TMIN to TMAX = −40°C to +125°C. Differential input voltage range = ±125 mV with half-scale output offset. Source imbalance <2 Ω. 4 The offset adjustment is ratiometric to the power supply when VREF1 and VREF2 are used as a divider between the supplies. 5 When the input common mode is less than 5 V, the supply current increases. This can be calculated with the following formula: IS = −0.7 (VCM) + 4.2 (see Figure 21). 2 3 Rev. 0 | Page 3 of 16 AD8210 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS Table 2. Parameter Supply Voltage Continuous Input Voltage (VCM) Reverse Supply Voltage ESD Rating HBM (Human Body Model) CDM (Charged Device Model) Operating Temperature Range Storage Temperature Range Output Short-Circuit Duration Rating 12.5 V −5 V to +68 V 0.3 V ±4000 V ±1000 V −40°C to +125°C −65°C to +150°C Indefinite Stresses above those listed under Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause permanent damage to the device. This is a stress rating only; functional operation of the device at these or any other conditions above those indicated in the operational section of this specification is not implied. Exposure to absolute maximum rating conditions for extended periods may affect device reliability. ESD CAUTION ESD (electrostatic discharge) sensitive device. Electrostatic charges as high as 4000 V readily accumulate on the human body and test equipment and can discharge without detection. Although this product features proprietary ESD protection circuitry, permanent damage may occur on devices subjected to high energy electrostatic discharges. Therefore, proper ESD precautions are recommended to avoid performance degradation or loss of functionality. Rev. 0 | Page 4 of 16 AD8210 PIN CONFIGURATION AND FUNCTION DESCRIPTIONS VREF 2 3 NC 4 AD8210 8 +IN 7 VREF 1 6 V+ TOP VIEW (Not to Scale) 5 OUT NC = NO CONNECT 1 2 8 7 05147-003 –IN 1 GND 2 Figure 2. Pin Configuration Table 3. Pin Function Descriptions Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mnemonic −IN GND VREF2 NC OUT V+ VREF1 +IN X −443 −479 −466 Y +584 +428 −469 +466 +501 +475 +443 −537 −95 +477 +584 3 5 Figure 3. Metallization Diagram Rev. 0 | Page 5 of 16 05147-002 6 AD8210 2000 1600 1200 GAIN ERROR (PPM) 800 400 0 –400 –800 –1200 –1600 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 30 50 70 90 110 TEMPERATURE (°C) –2000 –40 –30 –20 –10 Figure 4. Typical Offset Drift 0 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 30 50 70 90 110 TEMPERATURE (°C) 05147-033 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 –20 –40 –60 –80 –100 –120 –140 –160 –180 –200 –40 05147-030 VOSI (µV) TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Figure 7. Typical Gain Drift 140 30 25 130 20 120 15 10 +125°C 0 +25°C GAIN (dB) 100 90 –5 –10 –15 –20 –40°C –25 –30 70 –35 –40 60 100 1k 10k 100k FREQUENCY (Hz) 05147-032 80 Figure 5. CMRR vs. Frequency and Temperature (Common-Mode Voltage < 5 V) –45 –50 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M FREQUENCY (Hz) Figure 8. Typical Small Signal Bandwidth (VOUT = 200 mV p-p) 140 100mV/DIV 130 +25°C 110 500mV/DIV –40°C +125°C 100 90 80 60 100 1k 10k FREQUENCY (Hz) 100k 400ns/DIV Figure 9. Fall Time Figure 6. CMRR vs. Frequency and Temperature (Common-Mode Voltage > 5 V) Rev. 0 | Page 6 of 16 05147-017 70 05147-031 CMRR (dB) 120 05147-014 CMRR (dB) 5 110 AD8210 4V/DIV 100mV/DIV 0.02%/DIV 4µs/DIV Figure 10. Rise Time 05147-024 400ns/DIV 05147-018 500mV/DIV Figure 13. Settling Time (Falling) 200mV/DIV 4V/DIV 0.02%/DIV 4µs/DIV Figure 11. Differential Overload Recovery (Falling) 05147-025 1µs/DIV 05147-016 2V/DIV Figure 14. Settling Time (Rising) 50V/DIV 200mV/DIV 2V/DIV 1µs/DIV Figure 12. Differential Overload Recovery (Rising) Figure 15. Common-Mode Response (Falling) Rev. 0 | Page 7 of 16 05147-019 1µs/DIV 05147-015 100mV/DIV AD8210 5.0 4.9 4.8 OUTPUT VOLTAGE RANGE (V) 50V/DIV 100mV/DIV 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7 1µs/DIV 3.5 OUTPUT SOURCE CURRENT (mA) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 TEMPERATURE (°C) 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 05147-038 OUTPUT VOLTAGE RANGE FROM GND (V) 1.4 05147-022 OUTPUT SINK CURRENT (mA) Figure 17. Output Sink Current vs. Temperature Figure 20.Output Voltage Range from GND vs. Output Sink Current 11 6.0 10 5.5 9 5.0 SUPPLY CURRENT (mA) 8 7 6 5 4 3 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2 2.0 1 1.5 –20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 TEMPERATURE (°C) 140 1.0 –2 05147-026 0 –40 0 2 4 6 8 COMMON-MODE VOLTAGE (V) Figure 18. Output Source Current vs. Temperature Figure 21. Supply Current vs. Common-Mode Voltage Rev. 0 | Page 8 of 16 65 05147-027 MAXIMUM OUTPUT SINK CURRENT (mA) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 Figure 19. Output Voltage Range vs. Output Source Current Figure 16. Common-Mode Response (Rising) MAXIMUM OUTPUT SOURCE CURRENT (mA) 0 05147-023 05147-020 3.6 AD8210 2100 +125°C +25°C –40°C 4000 1800 1500 1200 COUNT COUNT 3000 900 2000 600 1000 –3 0 3 9 10 6 VOS DRIFT (µV/°C) 0 –2.0 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 VOS (mV) Figure 24. Offset Distribution (μV), SOIC, VCM = 5 V Figure 22. Offset Drift Distribution (μV/°C), SOIC, Temperature Range = −40°C to +125°C 3500 4000 3000 3500 +125°C +25°C –40°C 3000 COUNT 2500 2000 1500 2500 2000 1500 1000 1000 500 0 500 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 GAIN DRIFT (PPM/°C) 20 05147-035 COUNT –1.5 05147-036 –6 05147-034 0 –10 –9 05147-037 300 0 –2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 VOS (mV) Figure 25. Offset Distribution (μV), SOIC, VCM = 0 V Figure 23. Gain Drift Distribution (PPM/°C), SOIC, Temperature = −40°C to +125°C Rev. 0 | Page 9 of 16 AD8210 THEORY OF OPERATION differential signal is nonzero, the current increases through one of the resistors and decreases in the other. The current difference is proportional to the size and polarity of the input signal. In typical applications, the AD8210 amplifies a small differential input voltage generated by the load current flowing through a shunt resistor. The AD8210 rejects high common-mode voltages (up to 65 V) and provides a ground referenced buffered output that interfaces with an analog-to-digital converter. Figure 26 shows a simplified schematic of the AD8210. The differential currents through Q1 and Q2 are converted into a differential voltage by R3 and R4. A2 is configured as an instrumentation amplifier. The differential voltage is converted into a single-ended output voltage by A2. The gain is internally set with precision trimmed, thin film resistors to 20 V/V. The AD8210 is comprised of two main blocks, a differential amplifier and an instrumentation amplifier. A load current flowing through the external shunt resistor produces a voltage at the input terminals of the AD8210. The input terminals are connected to the differential amplifier (A1) by Resistor R1 and Resistor R2. A1 nulls the voltage appearing across its own input terminals by adjusting the current through R1 and R2 with Transistor Q1 and Transistor Q2. When the input signal to the AD8210 is 0 V, the currents in R1 and R2 are equal. When the The output reference voltage is easily adjusted by the VREF1 pin and VREF2 pin. In a typical configuration, VREF1 is connected to VCC while VREF2 is connected to GND. In this case, the output is centered at VCC/2 when the input signal is 0 V. ISHUNT RSHUNT R1 R2 VS AD8210 A1 Q1 Q2 VREF 1 VOUT = (ISHUNT × RSHUNT ) × 20 A2 R3 R4 VREF 2 05147-004 GND Figure 26. Simplified Schematic Rev. 0 | Page 10 of 16 AD8210 MODES OF OPERATION The AD8210 can be adjusted for unidirectional or bidirectional operation. UNIDIRECTIONAL OPERATION Unidirectional operation allows the AD8210 to measure currents through a resistive shunt in one direction. The basic modes for unidirectional operation are ground referenced output mode and V+ referenced output mode. V+ Referenced Output This mode is set when both reference pins are tied to the positive supply. It is typically used when the diagnostic scheme requires detection of the amplifier and wiring before power is applied to the load (see Figure 28 and Table 5). RS +IN –IN In unidirectional operation, the output can be set at the negative rail (near ground) or at the positive rail (near V+) when the differential input is 0 V. The output moves to the opposite rail when a correct polarity differential input voltage is applied. In this case, full scale is approximately 250 mV. The required polarity of the differential input depends on the output voltage setting. If the output is set at ground, then the polarity needs to be positive to move the output up (see Table 5). If the output is set at the positive rail, then the input polarity needs to be negative to move the output down (see Table 6). VS AD8210 0.1µF VREF 1 OUTPUT G = +20 Ground Referenced Output VREF 2 When using the AD8210 in this mode, both reference inputs are tied to ground, which causes the output to sit at the negative rail when the differential input voltage is zero (see Figure 27 and Table 4). 05147-006 GND Figure 28. V+ Referenced Output RS +IN Table 5. V+ = 5 V –IN VS VIN (Referred to −IN) 0V −250 mV 0.1µF AD8210 BIDIRECTIONAL OPERATION VREF 1 OUTPUT G = +20 VREF 2 Bidirectional operation allows the AD8210 to measure currents through a resistive shunt in two directions. The output offset can be set anywhere within the output range. Typically, it is set at half scale for equal measurement range in both directions. In some cases, however, it is set at a voltage other than half scale when the bidirectional current is nonsymmetrical. Table 6. V+ = 5 V, VO = 2.5 V with VIN = 0 V 05147-005 GND Figure 27. Ground Referenced Output VIN (Referred to –IN) +125 mV −125 mV VO 4.9 V 0.05 V Adjusting the output can also be accomplished by applying voltage(s) to the reference inputs. Table 4. V+ = 5 V VIN (Referred to −IN) 0V 250 mV VO 4.9 V 0.05 V VO 0.05 V 4.9 V Rev. 0 | Page 11 of 16 AD8210 External Referenced Output RS Tying both VREF pins together to an external reference produces an output offset at the reference voltage when there is no differential input (see Figure 29). When the input is negative relative to the −IN pin, the output moves down from the reference voltage. When the input is positive relative to the −IN pin, the output increases. +IN –IN VS AD8210 RS +IN 0.1µF VREF 1 VREF –IN 0V ≤ VREF ≤ VS VS G = +20 OUTPUT 0.1µF AD8210 VREF 2 VREF GND 0V ≤ VREF ≤ VS 05147-008 VREF 1 OUTPUT Figure 30. Split External Reference G = +20 Splitting the Supply GND 05147-007 VREF 2 Figure 29. External Reference Output Splitting an External Reference In this case, an external reference is divided by two with an accuracy of approximately 0.2% by connecting one VREF pin to ground and the other VREF pin to the reference voltage (see Figure 30). By tying one reference pin to V+ and the other to the GND pin, the output is set at mid supply when there is no differential input (see Figure 31). This mode is beneficial because no external reference is required to offset the output for bidirectional current measurement. This creates a midscale offset that is ratiometric to the supply, meaning that if the supply increases or decreases, the output still remains at half scale. For example, if the supply is 5.0 V, the output is at half scale or 2.5 V. If the supply increases by 10% (to 5.5 V), the output also increases by 10% (2.75 V). RS Note that Pin VREF1 and Pin VREF2 are tied to internal precision resistors that connect to an internal offset node. There is no operational difference between the pins. +IN –IN VS For proper operation, the AD8210 output offset should not be set with a resistor voltage divider. Any additional external resistance could create a gain error. A low impedance voltage source should be used to set the output offset of the AD8210. AD8210 0.1µF VREF 1 G = +20 OUTPUT VREF 2 05147-009 GND Figure 31. Split Supply Rev. 0 | Page 12 of 16 AD8210 INPUT FILTERING Adding outside components such as RFILTER and CFILTER introduces additional errors to the system. To minimize these errors as much as possible, it is recommended that RFILTER be 10 Ω or lower. By adding the RFILTER in series with the 2 kΩ internal input resistors of the AD8210, a gain error is introduced. This can be calculated using the following formula: In typical applications such as motor and solenoid current sensing, filtering at the input of the AD8210 can be beneficial in reducing differential noise, as well as transients and current ripples flowing through the input shunt resistor. An input lowpass filter can be implemented as shown in Figure 32. The 3 dB frequency for this filter can be calculated using the following formula: (1) 2 π × R FILTER × C FILTER RSHUNT < RFILTER RFILTER ≤ 10Ω RFILTER ≤ 10Ω CFILTER +IN –IN VS 0.1µF AD8210 VREF VREF 1 0V ≤ VREF ≤ VS OUTPUT G = +20 VREF 2 GND 05147-013 f _ 3 dB = 1 ⎛ ⎞ 2 kΩ ⎟ Gain Error (%) = 100 − ⎜100 × ⎜ 2 kΩ − RFILTER ⎟⎠ ⎝ Figure 32. Input Low-Pass Filtering Rev. 0 | Page 13 of 16 (2) AD8210 APPLICATIONS 5V The AD8210 is ideal for high-side or low-side current sensing. Its accuracy and performance benefits applications such as 3-phase and H-bridge motor control, solenoid control, as well as power supply current monitoring. 0.1µF SWITCH BATTERY For solenoid control, two typical circuit configurations are used: high-side current sense with a low-side switch, and high-side current sense with a high-side switch. +IN VREF 1 –IN GND CLAMP DIODE HIGH-SIDE CURRENT SENSE WITH A LOW-SIDE SWITCH +VS OUT AD8210 SHUNT VREF 2 NC In this case, the PWM control switch is ground referenced. An inductive load (solenoid) is tied to a power supply. A resistive shunt is placed between the switch and the load (see Figure 33). An advantage of placing the shunt on the high side is that the entire current, including the recirculation current, can be measured because the shunt remains in the loop when the switch is off. In addition, diagnostics can be enhanced because short circuits to ground can be detected with the shunt on the high side. NC = NO CONNECT 05147-011 INDUCTIVE LOAD Figure 34. High-Side Switch Using a high-side switch connects the battery voltage to the load when the switch is closed. This causes the common-mode voltage to increase to the battery voltage. In this case, when the switch is opened, the voltage reversal across the inductive load causes the common-mode voltage to be held one diode drop below ground by the clamp diode. 5V CLAMP DIODE +IN BATTERY H-BRIDGE MOTOR CONTROL 0.1µF INDUCTIVE LOAD VREF 1 +VS Another typical application for the AD8210 is as part of the control loop in H-bridge motor control. In this case, the AD8210 is placed in the middle of the H-bridge (see Figure 35) so that it can accurately measure current in both directions by using the shunt available at the motor. This configuration is beneficial for measuring the recirculation current to further enhance the control loop diagnostics. OUT AD8210 SHUNT –IN GND VREF 2 NC SWITCH 05147-010 NC = NO CONNECT 5V 0.1µF CONTROLLER Figure 33. Low-Side Switch MOTOR +IN VREF 1 +VS OUT AD8210 SHUNT –IN GND VREF 2 NC 5V 2.5V HIGH-SIDE CURRENT SENSE WITH A HIGH-SIDE SWITCH NC = NO CONNECT Figure 35. Motor Control Application This configuration minimizes the possibility of unexpected solenoid activation and excessive corrosion (see Figure 34). In this case, both the switch and the shunt are on the high side. When the switch is off, the battery is removed from the load, which prevents damage from potential short circuits to ground, while still allowing the recirculation current to be measured and diagnostics to be preformed. Removing the power supply from the load for the majority of the time minimizes the corrosive effects that could be caused by the differential voltage between the load and ground. The AD8210 measures current in both directions as the H-bridge switches and the motor changes direction. The output of the AD8210 is configured in an external reference bidirectional mode; see the Modes of Operation section. Rev. 0 | Page 14 of 16 05147-012 In this circuit configuration, when the switch is closed, the common-mode voltage moves down to the negative rail. When the switch is opened, the voltage reversal across the inductive load causes the common-mode voltage to be held one diode drop above the battery by the clamp diode. AD8210 OUTLINE DIMENSIONS 5.00 (0.1968) 4.80 (0.1890) 8 4.00 (0.1574) 3.80 (0.1497) 1 5 4 1.27 (0.0500) BSC 0.25 (0.0098) 0.10 (0.0040) 6.20 (0.2440) 5.80 (0.2284) 1.75 (0.0688) 1.35 (0.0532) 0.51 (0.0201) COPLANARITY SEATING 0.31 (0.0122) 0.10 PLANE 0.50 (0.0196) × 45° 0.25 (0.0099) 8° 0.25 (0.0098) 0° 1.27 (0.0500) 0.40 (0.0157) 0.17 (0.0067) COMPLIANT TO JEDEC STANDARDS MS-012-AA CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS; INCH DIMENSIONS (IN PARENTHESES) ARE ROUNDED-OFF MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS FOR REFERENCE ONLY AND ARE NOT APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN DESIGN Figure 36. 8-Lead Standard Small Outline Package [SOIC_N] Narrow Body (R-8) Dimensions shown in millimeters and (inches) ORDERING GUIDE Model AD8210YRZ 1 AD8210YRZ-REEL1 AD8210YRZ-REEL71 1 Temperature Range −40°C to +125°C −40°C to +125°C −40°C to +125°C Package Description 8-Lead SOIC_N 8-Lead SOIC_N, 13” Tape and Reel 8-Lead SOIC_N, 7” Tape and Reel Z = Pb-free part. Rev. 0 | Page 15 of 16 Package Option R-8 R-8 R-8 AD8210 NOTES ©2006 Analog Devices, Inc. All rights reserved. Trademarks and registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners. D05147-0-4/06(0) Rev. 0 | Page 16 of 16