AN1387: White LED Driver Circuits for Off-Line Applications using Standard PWM Controllers

White LED Driver Circuits for Off-Line
Applications using Standard PWM Controllers
®
Application Note
February 12, 2009
AN1387.0
Introduction
The LED Ballast
As high-efficiency ultra-bright white LEDs come down in
cost, they are approaching cost parity with conventional
mercury vapour, HID quartz metal halide and high/low
pressure sodium lighting on a cost per lumen basis. They
are becoming viable replacements in industrial and
commercial lighting applications. However, there are
significant differences between conventional lighting sources
and LEDs in terms of voltage and current operating
requirements. In particular, LEDs require a constant current
source from a low DC voltage source, but they must also
operate from the AC mains. Just as conventional lighting
sources require a ballast, LED lighting sources have an
analogous circuit. This Application Note discusses
techniques for powering LEDs directly from the AC mains,
not only to develop the requisite voltage and current, but
also to deliver power from the AC mains with near unity
power factor while using off-the-shelf constant frequency
PWM controllers. The major difference in the control circuitry
between a conventional DC/DC converter and the LED
ballast is that the output current, rather than the output
voltage, is the controlled parameter.
Fortunately, there are many power supply topologies suitable
for this application. Virtually any topology having a series
inductor is suitable. This would include Boost, Buck-Boost,
SEPIC, CUK, and Flyback converters, to name a few. The
only requirements being that the inductor current must reduce
to zero during a portion of the switching cycle, i.e., the
converter must operate in either discontinuous conduction
mode (DCM) or critical conduction mode (CrCM), and the
converter must be operated with a constant On-Time control.
The reason for the restrictions is to achieve unity power factor
from the AC mains. When operated as described, the peak
(and average) inductor current will track the input voltage
waveform. The input current will be sinusoidal and in-phase
with the AC input voltage.
Requirements
To achieve light intensity comparable to conventional
commercial and industrial lighting, multiple LEDs must be
used. The LEDs may be connected in parallel or series, or a
combination of both. Depending on the light intensity required,
the number of required LEDs could range from a few to
hundreds. Each LED may require, depending on its
characteristics, between 300mA and 1000mA of DC current at
3V to 4V to provide up to 175 lumens of light output1. A typical
high pressure sodium street lamp bulb consumes 150W and
produces about 15,000 lumens2. Using presently available
LEDs, an equivalent intensity LED “bulb” would require up to
150 LEDs and consume somewhat more power.
We desire a simple low cost power supply (LED ballast) that
converts the AC mains input to a constant current DC
source. Furthermore, the power must be delivered from the
source with near unity power factor*.
From Faraday’s Law and the definition of inductance, we
have Equation 1:
V =L
di
dt
(EQ. 1)
Since the switching period of the converter is very short
compared to the AC line frequency, we can assume the voltage
applied to the inductor is constant during a single switching
cycle. If V and L are constant, then ΔI and ΔT may be
substituted for di and dt, respectively. Furthermore, since this is
a constant On-Time control law, TON may be substituted for ΔT.
Rearranging and solving for ΔI yields Equation 2:
ΔI =
V
•
L T ON
(EQ. 2)
Since TON and L are constant, ΔI varies in proportion to the
applied voltage, V. The AC input voltage is applied to the
inductor, and as it varies, ΔI varies in proportion. Since the
converter is operated in either DCM or CRCM, the inductor
current always starts each switching cycle at zero current.
Therefore, ΔI is the peak inductor current. Each switching
cycle of the converter generates a triangular inductor current
waveform that conforms to the envelope of the rectified AC
input voltage waveform.
*.Power factor is the ratio of real power to apparent
power (W/VxA, where W = watts, V = RMS voltage, A = RMS
current). Unity power factor implies that the load has no reactive (inductive or capacitive) component and appears purely
resistive.
1
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Application Note 1387
FIGURE 1. RECTIFIED AC VOLTAGE AND INPUT CURRENT WAVEFORMS
Figure 1 depicts the input voltage and current waveforms for a
converter operating in DCM with constant On-Time control.
The switching frequency of the converter has been reduced to
2kHz to illustrate the input current waveform on a time scale
appropriate for viewing both waveforms simultaneously.
One consequence to achieving near unity power factor is the
energy delivered from the AC mains is not constant, but
varies with the sinusoidal AC input voltage. The LED load,
however, requires a constant DC current and voltage. Some
LED driver solutions address this problem by using a second
DC/DC converter to regulate the current. This is entirely
unnecessary. A single stage converter is fully capable of
meeting the requirements. The only penalty is a small
amount of rectified line frequency ripple on the output
voltage of the converter, the magnitude of which is inversely
proportional to the value of output capacitance. This topic
will be further discussed later.
We have established that the converter must be operated
using a constant On-Time control law, but how is the current
through the LEDs regulated to achieve the desired intensity
and/or color temperature? The answer is the On-time is not
truly constant.
If the On-time is modulated slowly, the On-time over an AC
half-cycle will be virtually constant, but can still be slowly
changed over time to regulate the current through the LEDs.
This requires that the LED current control loop have a
bandwidth significantly less than the frequency of the
rectified AC input, or about 20Hz to 30Hz.
Three of the many converter topologies suitable for LED
driver applications will be discussed in detail. The methods
discussed are easily adapted to other topologies as the
actual control circuitry is not topology dependent. One
control circuit can be used for all single stage LED driver
topologies.
2
The Boost Converter
The simplest LED ballast is based on a conventional boost
converter, depicted in Figure 2.
L
AC
CIN
D
Q
COUT
RS
PWM
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 2. BOOST CONVERTER LED BALLAST
The boost converter is useful for driving a large series string
of LEDs. The only requirement being that the voltage applied
to the LEDs must be higher than the peak of the AC input
voltage. A boost converter cannot produce an output voltage
lower than its input. For example, if the input voltage is the
nominal 120VAC common in North America, it has an
operating range of 90VAC to 140VAC and a maximum peak
voltage of 198V (√2*140). The LED string must have a
sufficient quantity of LEDs in series such that the voltage
drop across the string is greater than the peak voltage of
198V. A typical forward voltage drop for a white LED is 3.5V,
suggesting a minimum string of 58 LEDs. Once variation of
forward voltage drop with temperature and other factors is
taken into account, the actual quantity of LEDs required may
be somewhat higher. If too few LEDs are used, the converter
will not be able to regulate the LED current.
The critical components of the boost converter are the
inductor, L, the primary power switch, Q, the rectifier D, and
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
the output capacitor, COUT. Each of these components must
be selected for the current and voltage stress experienced in
the application.
The inductor must be selected for both peak current and
RMS current rating to avoid saturation and excessive power
dissipation.
The voltage and current waveforms for a boost converter
operating in DCM are illustrated in Figure 3.
TON =
0
VOLTAGE
V IN
2TsI OUT L
VOUT − V IN
TOFF 1 =
VIN
VL
VOUT - VIN
TOFF1
TOFF2
L<
Ts
FIGURE 3. BOOST WAVEFORMS
The switching period Ts is divided into three subintervals
known as TON, TOFF1, and TOFF2. TON is the time period that
switch Q is conducting, also known as the On-time. TOFF1 is
the time period during which the inductor current ramps
down to zero after switch Q is turned off, and TOFF2 is the
remainder of the switching period where the inductor current
is zero.
VIN ⋅ TON
VOUT − VIN
2
2(VOUT − VIN )TsI OUT
L
(EQ. 3)
where VOUT is the output voltage, VIN is the peak input
voltage, Ts is the switching period, IOUT is the output current,
and L is the boost inductor value. Equation 3 assumes the
inductor current remains discontinuous (DCM operation).
The power switch, Q, and diode, D, are treated as ideal
elements. The RMS current through the inductor can be
calculated from Equations 4 through 6.
Irms =
2
π
Ipk
(EQ. 7)
Ts (VOUT − VIN ) VIN2
2
2 I OUT
VOUT
TON + TOFF 1
3Ts
(EQ. 4)
The RMS current through switch Q is shown in Equation 9:
I Q ( RMS ) =
2
π
Ipk
TON
3Ts
(EQ. 9)
The factor of 2/π averages the RMS value over a complete
AC half-cycle. The voltage ratings of the power switch, Q,
diode D, and output capacitor, COUT, must be at least as high
as the converter output voltage plus allowance for transients
and design margin. The peak currents through Q and D are
the same as was obtained for the inductor. The average
current through diode D is the output current IOUT. The ripple
current rating for COUT is an involved calculation. There is a
high frequency component at the switching frequency, a low
frequency component at the rectified AC frequency, and a
DC component due to the load. An estimate may be
calculated using Equation 10.
I RMS ( COUT )
3
(EQ. 8)
The value of inductance determined by Equation 8 is the
maximum allowed inductance and must be calculated using
the minimum output voltage, the maximum instantaneous
input voltage, and maximum output current over a complete
AC half-cycle.
The peak inductor current can be estimated from Equation 3.
π
(EQ. 6)
The inductor value must be correctly sized so that the
converter remains in DCM operation over all operating
conditions. This criteria can be met provided the combined
duration of TON and TOFF1 are less than the switching
period, Ts. Summing Equations 5 and 6 and setting the
result to be less than Ts yields Equation 8.
0
Ipk =
(EQ. 5)
and:
TOFF 1' =
TON
2TsI OUT L(VOUT − V IN )
where VIN is the average rectified input voltage. Equations 5
and 6 represent the average values of TON and TOFF1,
respectively. While TON is essentially constant during an AC
half-cycle, TOFF1 will vary considerably over the same time
period. The instantaneous value of TOFF1, TOFF1’, may be
calculated from Equation 7.
IL
CURRENT
where:
⎞ 2
TOFF 1 ⎛ ΔI L2
⎜⎜
≈
− I OUT ΔI L ⎟⎟ + I OUT
TS ⎝ 3
⎠
(EQ. 10)
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
where:
ΔI L =
VIN
V − VIN
TON = OUT
TOFF 1
L
L
Evaluating ΔIL at the maximum instantaneous input voltage
will result in a conservative estimate of the ripple current.
Evaluating ΔIL at the average or RMS input voltage will
somewhat underestimate the ripple current.
The input capacitor, CIN, must be sufficiently small so that it
tracks the (unfiltered) rectified AC voltage. It must
completely charged and discharged in-phase with the
rectified AC input during each half-cycle. If this requirement
is not met, the input current waveform will be distorted and
power factor quality will be compromised.
The boost topology provides better power factor
performance when operated in critical conduction mode
(CrCM) rather than discontinuous conduction mode. Since
the inductor current ramps from Ipk to zero in proportion to
the difference between the input voltage and the output
voltage, the average inductor current does not track the input
voltage as well. This behavior becomes obvious if the output
voltage is nearly equal to the peak of the AC input voltage.
The inductor current ramps down more slowly as the
instantaneous difference between the input and output
voltage decreases. As the output voltage is further increased
above the peak input voltage, the distortion is reduced.
Figure 4 shows this effect. Operating in CrCM eliminates the
distortion because there is no TOFF2 period.
NORMALIZED RECTIFIED INPUT CURRENT
L1
(EQ. 11)
1.0
C1
D1
L2
AC
CIN
COUT
Q1
RS
PWM
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 5. SEPIC CONVERTER LED BALLAST
The SEPIC converter is more complicated than the boost
converter, and therefore requires some discussion of its
operation.
Referring to Figure 5, components L1 and L2 cannot have a
steady state DC voltage impressed across them, or
saturation would occur. Therefore, the average voltage
across each inductor must be zero. This result implies the
voltage across C1 must be equal to the rectified AC input,
VIN. Likewise, the DC current through C1 must be zero for
steady state operation. Since the DC current though C1
must be zero, the output current, IOUT, can only result from
current flowing in L2. Therefore, the average current through
L2 must be equal to the output current, IOUT. Therefore:
V L1 = 0 VDC
(EQ. 12)
V L 2 = 0 VDC
(EQ. 13)
I C1 = 0 ADC
(EQ. 14)
V C1 = VIN VDC
(EQ. 15)
IDEAL
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
VOUT = 190VDC
VOUT = 250VDC
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TIME (RADIANS)
FIGURE 4. RECTIFIED INPUT CURRENT vs VIN AND VOUT.
VIN = 120VRMS
The SEPIC Converter
The SEPIC converter is a more general purpose LED driver
than the boost converter, as it can produce output voltages
lower, equal to, or greater than the input voltage. Figure 5
shows the SEPIC converter. It requires more components
and has a higher material cost than the boost converter. The
SEPIC converter is capable of driving LED loads from just a
few to very many LEDs, limited only by the voltage rating of
the components.
4
In DCM operation, there are three time periods in each
switching cycle designated as TON, TOFF1, and TOFF2
corresponding to the state of the inductor currents. In the
SEPIC topology, the inductors are considered to be
discontinuous when the sum of their currents is zero rather
than when either inductor has zero current. This occurs
when the voltages across the inductors collapse to zero.
During TON, the switch, Q1, is closed and the inductor
currents ramp linearly to Ipk. (Ipk will be different for L1 and
L2 unless they have equal inductance.) TOFF1 starts when
switch Q1 opens and the inductor currents decrease in
magnitude. TOFF2 begins when the inductor currents sum to
zero and ends when the next switching cycle begins.
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
Since the VIN is applied across L1 and L2 for the same
period of time, each inductor experiences the same
flux-linkage (volt-second) change.
CURRENT
IL1
IL2
D1
C1
IL1+IL2
L1
t
0
IL1
VIN
L2
VL1, VL2
CIN
t
0
IOUT
IL2
COUT
Q1
LOAD
VIN
VOLTAGE
+ VIN -
-VOUT
TOFF1
TON
TOFF2
FIGURE 8. SEPIC CONVERTER DURING TOFF1
Ts
During TOFF1, the voltage across each inductor is:
FIGURE 6. CURRENT WAVEFORMS FOR L1 AND L2 (L2 > L1)
During TON, the main switch is closed. The input voltage, VIN,
is applied across L1. Since C1 has a steady state voltage
equal to VIN, L2 also has VIN applied across it during TON.
Diode, D1, is reversed biased and blocking. The load current,
IOUT, is entirely supplied by the output capacitor COUT.
+ VIN L1
C1
IL1
I L2
L2
CIN
IOUT
COUT
Q1
LOAD
VIN
D1
VL1(TOFF 1 ) = VOUT − VIN + VC1 = VOUT
(EQ. 18)
V L 2 (TOFF 1 ) = VOUT
(EQ. 19)
VOUT appears across both inductors during TOFF1 so their
flux-linkage (volt-second) change is again equal. Since
the flux-linkage (volt-second) change for both inductors is
identical during both TON and TOFF1, the inductor currents
will ramp and decay at the same rate and become
discontinuous at the same time.
Although the inductor currents may not be zero during
TOFF2, there is no inductor current flowing to the output. IOUT
is supplied entirely by COUT.
As noted earlier, the output current IOUT, is equal to the
average current in inductor, L2. However, since current only
flows to the output during TOFF1, the output current is also
the sum of the average inductor currents during TOFF1. The
output current, IOUT, can be expressed as Equation 20:
FIGURE 7. SEPIC CONVERTER DURING TON
It should be noted that C1 is sufficiently large that the AC
currents through it produce a negligible voltage change and
the voltage across it remains essentially equal to VIN. During
TON, when Q1 is conducting, both inductors have VIN applied
to them.
ΔI L1
1 TON
V L1(TON ) = L
V L 2(TON ) = L2
ΔI L 2
TON
= V IN
(EQ. 16)
= VIN
(EQ. 17)
I OUT =
2
⎛1
VOUT TOFF
1 ⎞
1
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
2TS ⎝ L1 L2 ⎠
(EQ. 20)
Solving for TOFF1 yields Equation 21:
TOFF 1 =
2TS I OUT
⎛1
1 ⎞
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟VOUT
⎝ L1 L 2 ⎠
(EQ. 21)
It should be noted that the value of TOFF1 in Equation 21 is
the average value during an AC half-cycle.
Since the inductors are operating in steady state, ΔI during
TON and TOFF1 must be equal and opposite in magnitude for
5
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
each inductor. Equating ΔI during periods TON and TOFF1
yields Equation 22:
TON =
VOUT
TOFF 1
VIN
(EQ. 22)
where VIN is the average input voltage since TON is virtually
constant over an AC half-cycle (to achieve high power
factor). Since the switching frequency, TS, is constant, TOFF2
can be calculated from Equations 21 and 22, yielding
Equation 23.
TOFF 2 = TS − TON − TOFF 1
(EQ. 23)
When selecting the values of inductors L1 ad L2, it is
important to realize that they must operate in the
discontinuous mode to maintain high power factor.
Discontinuous operation occurs when TON + TOFF1 ≤ TS.
Using this information combined with Equations 21 and 22
shows that the parallel combination of L1 and L2 must be
less than the value indicated in Equation 24 for
discontinuous operation to occur.
2
⎛ V IN
⎞
⎜⎜
⎟ TSVOUT
VIN + VOUT ⎟⎠
L1L2
⎝
≤
L1 + L2
2 I OUT
(EQ. 24)
where VIN is the average minimum input voltage, VIN is the
instantaneous maximum value of the minimum input voltage,
and VOUT is the minimum output voltage.
Referring to Figure 6, the DC offset current that flows is the
result of maintaining charge balance on the series capacitor,
C1. By summing the charge into the capacitor during the three
intervals TON, TOFF1, and TOFF2, the value of the DC offset
current, IDC can be calculated. The average current IC1 through
the series capacitor, C1, must be zero.
I C1
V T2
V T2
= 0 = OUT OFF 1 − IN ON + I DC
2 L1TS
2 L2TS
(EQ. 25)
Substituting for TON and TOFF1 using Equations 21 and 22,
and solving for IDC yields Equation 26:
I DC =
L1I OUT ⎛ VINVOUT L2 ⎞
⎜
− ⎟⎟
L1 + L2 ⎜⎝ V 2IN
L1 ⎠
(EQ. 26)
where VIN is the average minimum input voltage, VIN is the
instantaneous maximum value of the minimum input voltage,
and VOUT is the minimum output voltage. It should be noted
that VIN is not the instantaneous input voltage, but the input
voltage corresponding to the peak of the AC input. This
equation was derived using values averaged over an AC
half-cycle, not from an individual switching cycle. The
average value of the inductor currents during TOFF1 does
equal IOUT when averaged over an AC half-cycle, but this is
generally not true for an individual switching cycle.
6
As can be seen from Equation 26, the magnitude and
polarity of IDC is dependent on the ratio of L2 to L1 and the
product of VOUT and VIN to VIN. Equation 26 becomes invalid
when VIN falls below the voltage where maximum duty cycle
would occur.
As long as Equation 24 is satisfied, the inductors will operate
in discontinuous mode. Within this limitation, the
determination of inductance values for L1 and L2 is
somewhat arbitrary. However, there is an advantage in
keeping IDC positive over a complete AC half-cycle.
Otherwise, if IDC is negative, current will flow into the input
capacitor (CIN, Figures 5, 7 and 8). Since CIN is deliberately
a low value to accurately track the rectified AC line voltage,
its voltage can change significantly due to IDC. This behavior
can impair power factor performance.
Setting Equation 26 equal to zero and solving for the ratio of
L2 to L1, and substituting the result into Equation 24 yields
upper limit values for L1 and L2. Examining Equation 26
further, it is apparent that if L1 >> L2, IDC will be positive for
most practical operating conditions.
As previously determined, the average value of current in L2
is the output current, IOUT. The average current through L1 is
shown in Equation 27:
I L1 =
VOUT
I OUT
VIN
(EQ. 27)
where VIN is the average input voltage during an AC
half-cycle. The change in inductor currents is shown in
Equations 27 and 28:
ΔI L1 =
V
VIN
TON = OUT TOFF 1
L1
L1
ΔI L 2 =
VIN
V
TON = OUT TOFF 1
L2
L2
(EQ. 28)
(EQ. 29)
The peak value of inductor current is the change in inductor
current, ΔILx plus the offset DC current, IDC.
V
VIN
TON + I DC = OUT TOFF 1 + I DC
L1
L1
V
V
= IN TON − I DC = OUT TOFF 1 − I DC
L2
L2
I PK ( L1) =
(EQ. 30)
I PK ( L 2)
(EQ. 31)
where VIN is the maximum instantaneous input voltage,
VOUT is the minimum output voltage, and IDC is determined
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
from Equation 26. The RMS currents for each inductor are
shown in Equations 32 and 33:
I RMS ( L1) =
2
⎞ 2
TON + TOFF 1 ⎛ ΔI L1
2
⎜
⎟ + I DC
+
I
Δ
I
+
I
DC
L
DC
1
⎜ 3
⎟
TS
⎝
⎠
(EQ. 32)
I RMS ( L 2 ) =
2
⎞ 2
TON + TOFF 1 ⎛ ΔI L 2
2
⎜
⎟ + I DC
−
I
Δ
I
+
I
DC
L
DC
2
⎜ 3
⎟
TS
⎝
⎠
(EQ. 33)
The ripple current through the series capacitor, C1, may be
calculated from the RMS currents during each of the portion
of the switching cycle, TON, TOFF1, and TOFF2.
I RMS ( C1) =
2
I C21( RMS )TON + I C21( RMS )TOFF 1 + I C21( RMS )TOFF 2
π
(EQ. 34)
where:
TON
TS
I C1( RMS )TON =
⎛ ΔI L22
2 ⎞
⎜⎜
⎟⎟
− I DC ΔI L 2 + I DC
⎝ 3
⎠
TOFF 1 ⎛ ΔI L21
2 ⎞
⎜⎜
⎟⎟
=
+ I DC ΔI L1 + I DC
TS ⎝ 3
⎠
I C1( RMS )TOFF 1
I C1( RMS )TOFF 2 =
TOFF 2 2
I DC
TS
The RMS current through switch, Q1, is shown in Equation 35:
2
π
(ΔI L1 + ΔI L 2 )
TON
3TS
The average current through diode D1 is the output current
IOUT. Ignoring transients, the voltage stress on D1 is equal to
VIN plus VOUT.
The input capacitor, CIN, must be sufficiently small so that it
tracks the (unfiltered) rectified AC voltage. It must
completely charged and discharged in phase with the
rectified AC input during each half-cycle. If this requirement
is not met, the input current waveform will be distorted and
power factor quality will be compromised. Additionally, the
value of C1 must on the same order of magnitude as CIN. In
general, the coupling capacitor, C1, needs to be large
enough to handle the ripple current, but if it is too large in
comparison to CIN, its voltage will not track the input voltage
well, increasing harmonic distortion, and especially zerocrossing distortion. Zero-crossing distortion is evidenced by
discontinuity in the input AC current waveform when the AC
voltage crosses 0V.
The Flyback Converter
The individual RMS values must be evaluated using the
maximum instantaneous input voltage, which occurs at the
peak of the rectified input AC voltage. The factor of 2/π
averages the RMS value over a complete AC half-cycle.
I RMS ( Q1) =
where ΔIL1 and ΔIL2 are evaluated at the maximum
instantaneous input voltage. Evaluating ΔIL at the maximum
instantaneous input voltage will result in a conservative
estimate of the ripple current. Evaluating ΔIL at the average
or RMS input voltage will somewhat underestimate the ripple
current.
(EQ. 35)
If the difference between the average input voltage and the
output voltage is large, the SEPIC topology discussed earlier
may not be appropriate due to the extremely low duty cycle
required for steady state operation. A transformer coupled
topology may be required to step the voltage down to a more
manageable level. Transformer coupled topologies can also
provide isolation between the input and output as may be
required in some applications.
The simplest transformer coupled topology is the Flyback
converter. Depending on the application requirements, the
converter can be isolated or not. Figure 9 shows a non-isolated
configuration where the primary and secondary grounds are
common, and the control loop has no isolation component.
where ΔIL1 and ΔIL2 are evaluated at the maximum
instantaneous input voltage. Ignoring voltage transients, the
voltage stress on Q1 is equal to VIN plus VOUT plus VD1.
The ripple current rating for COUT is an involved calculation.
There is a high frequency component at the switching
frequency, a low frequency component at the rectified AC
frequency, and a DC load current component. An estimate of
the RMS ripple current rating for COUT can be approximated
from Equation 36.
I RMS ( C OUT ) ≈
2
⎞ 2
TOFF 1 ⎛ (ΔI L1 + ΔI L 2 )
⎜
− (ΔI L1 + ΔI L 2 )I OUT ⎟⎟ + I OUT
⎜
3
TS ⎝
⎠
T
AC
D
COUT
CIN
Q
RS
PWM
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 9. FLYBACK CONVERTER LED BALLAST
(EQ. 36)
7
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
The Flyback converter operates in a similar fashion as the
Boost and SEPIC converters discussed earlier. Like those
topologies, the main considerations are to operate at a
nearly constant duty cycle and in Discontinuous Conduction
Mode (DCM).
this condition must occur when operating at maximum duty
cycle (minimum VRMS) while the input AC voltage is at the
peak of its sinusoidal waveform. Equation 39 defines the
change in secondary current, ΔIS(min), that must occur to
maintain DCM operation.
DCM operation must be confirmed for peak minimum input
voltage (VRMS(min) x √2), maximum output current, and
minimum output voltage. Given a constant load and output
voltage, the average input voltage will determine the duty
cycle. The maximum duty cycle occurs at the minimum
average input voltage. Since power transfer from the primary
to the secondary tracks the magnitude of the instantaneous
AC voltage, the power transferred to the secondary is less
than required when the instantaneous voltage is less than
the average value for an AC cycle, and more than is required
when the instantaneous voltage is greater than the average
voltage. The highest currents occur when the instantaneous
voltage reaches its maximum (VRMS(min) x √2). It is at this
operating condition that DCM operation must be maintained
in order to achieve acceptable power factor. Even though the
duty cycle is determined by the average input voltage, the
designer must establish DCM operation at the instantaneous
peak input voltage.
ΔI S (min) =
The transformer design is the critical component in achieving
the desired performance. The primary inductance, the
secondary inductance, and the energy storage capability of
the core structure must all be considered in the design.
These are the same considerations present in any DCM
flyback design, except it is complicated by the time-varying
nature of the rectified AC input voltage.
The following discussion assumes that the output power, PO,
the maximum desired operating flux density, Bmax, the
maximum duty cycle, DMAX, and the switching frequency, f,
are pre-established quantities. The first step is to determine
the energy storage requirement of the transformer core.
Δw =
PO
η⋅ f
(EQ. 37)
where Δw is the energy stored in the core structure in joules, PO
is the output power, η is the expected conversion efficiency, and
f is the switching frequency of the converter. The output current,
IO, can be expressed using Equation 38:
IO =
PO
η ⋅ VO
(EQ. 38)
where VO is the output voltage. The efficiency, η, is included
in Equation 38 to approximate the equivalent output current
the converter must process. IO is the (equivalent) average
output current that must be delivered to the load under the
worst case operating conditions while operating in DCM. It is
also the average current flowing in the secondary of the
transformer. The desired operating behavior is to have the
switching cycle terminate just as the current in the
secondary winding becomes discontinuous. Furthermore,
8
π ⋅ IO
(EQ. 39)
1 − Dmax
where Dmax is the duty cycle that occurs at the minimum
input RMS input voltage, and IO is the average output
current. ΔIS(min) is scaled by π/2 because the duty cycle is
determined by the average input voltage, not the peak.
The maximum secondary inductance, LS, that allows the
current to completely decay during the off time for DCM
operation is shown in Equation 40:
V (1 − DMAX ) VO (1 − DMAX )
LS = O
=
f ⋅ ΔI S (min)
f ⋅ π ⋅ IO
2
(EQ. 40)
The transformer turns ratio, NS/NP = Ns/p, may be calculated
as follows.
Ns / p =
VO
(1 − DMAX )
VIN (min, pk )
DMAX
(EQ. 41)
where VIN(min,pk) is the peak value of the minimum AC
voltage input.
The primary inductance, LP, is easily calculated from the
turns ratio and secondary inductance value.
LS
N s2/ p
LP =
(EQ. 42)
The peak secondary current during a switching cycle is:
I S , peak =
VIN (min, pk ) ⋅ DMAX
f ⋅ LP ⋅ N s / p
=
VO ⋅ (1 − DMAX )
f ⋅ LS
(EQ. 43)
Up to this point, the design procedure has been independent
of the core geometry and material characteristics. To
proceed, these parameters must be considered. For this
discussion, a E-E core with an effective cross-sectional area
Ae and having discrete air gap lg will be considered.
Furthermore, the core has a residual flux density of Br, and a
recommended maximum flux density of Bmax. The number of
secondary turns, NS, is expressed in Equation 44:
NS =
I S , peak ⋅ LS
Ae ⋅ (Bmax − Br )
=
VO ⋅ (1 − DMAX )
f ⋅ Ae ⋅ (Bmax − Br )
(EQ. 44)
The required air gap in the core, lg, can be found using
Equation 45:
lg =
μ0 ⋅ Ae ⋅ N S2
(EQ. 45)
LS
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
where μ0 is the permeability of free space (4π 10-7) and the
result is in meters (mks units). The number of primary turns
can be found using Equation 46.
N
NP = S
Ns / p
(EQ. 46)
>
μ0
2 ⋅ Δw
(Bmax − Br )2
(EQ. 47)
where Δw is defined in Equation 37. If the inequality of
Equation 47 is not satisfied, the air gap must be increased, a
core with a larger cross-sectional area must be used, or the
maximum flux density, Bmax, must be increased.
The worst case RMS winding currents are expressed in
Equations 48 and 49:
I P , rms
2 VIN (min, pk )
=
π f ⋅ LP
⎞
1 ⎛⎜
VO
⎟
3 ⎜⎝ N s / p ⋅ VIN (min, pk ) + VO ⎟⎠
3
(EQ. 48)
I S , rms =
2 VIN (min, pk )
VO
⋅
π f ⋅ LP ⋅ N s / p (N s / p ⋅ VIN (min, pk ) + VO )
⎞
VO
1 ⎛⎜
⎟
1−
3 ⎜⎝ (N s / p ⋅ VIN (min, pk ) + VO ) ⎟⎠
(EQ. 49)
2
VO ⋅ TOFF
1
2TS ⋅ LS
(EQ. 50)
Solving for TOFF1 yields:
TOFF 1 =
2 I O ⋅ TS ⋅ LS
VO
(EQ. 51)
The change in current, ΔI, during TON and TOFF1 scaled by
the turns ratio must be equal. Equating the change in amp
turns (ΔI*NP = ΔI*NS) during TON and TOFF1, respectively,
and solving for TON yields:
TON =
N S VIN '
⋅
TON
N P VO
(EQ. 53)
VO ⋅ N P
⋅ TOFF 1
V IN ⋅ N S
(EQ. 52)
where VIN is the average input voltage. Equations 51 and 52
represent the average values of TOFF1 and TON,
respectively. While TON is essentially constant during an AC
half-cycle, the instantaneous value of TOFF1 will vary
9
The Output Capacitor
Each of these converters operates from the AC mains with
high power factor. Power delivery from the AC mains is
sinusoidal and at a low frequency, so either the power to the
load must be delivered as received from the source or there
must be a provision to store the energy in the converter. The
output capacitor performs this function. It not only filters the
converter switching currents, but must also provide sufficient
energy storage to maintain the output during the AC nodes
with an acceptable level of ripple voltage. The allowed ripple
voltage is determined by how much ripple current is
acceptable in the LED load. Due to the non-linear behavior
of the LED diode junction, the ripple current will be higher
than might be expected from a given ripple voltage. Although
higher ripple currents, even as much as 50-70%, do not
produce observable flicker, some LED manufacturers
suggest limiting the amount of ripple current to keep peak
currents within ratings. Ultimately, the designer must
evaluate the trade-offs between capacitance value and
ripple current.
The Control Loop
The output current, IOUT, is equal to the average current in
the secondary winding of the transformer. Since current only
flows in the secondary winding during TOFF1, the output
current can be expressed as:
I OUT =
TOFF 1' =
where VIN’ is the instantaneous value of the input voltage.
The capacity of the core to store sufficient energy needs to
be verified. Since all of the stored energy occurs in the air
gap, the volume of the air gap determines the energy
storage capacity.
Ae ⋅ l g
considerably over the same time period. The instantaneous
value of TOFF1, TOFF1’, may be calculated from Equation 53.
Figures 12, 13, and 14 show detailed schematics for boost,
SEPIC, and flyback converters, respectively. These
converters are based on the Intersil ISL6745 double-ended
PWM controller. The control loop is not topology dependent.
The same loop configuration can be used in virtually all
off-line AC LED applications. It consists of an operational
amplifier in a low bandwidth integrator configuration.
Referring to Figure 10, resistor RS converts the LED current
into a voltage that is compared to VREF. The operational
amplifier integrates the difference and creates an error
voltage output used to control the PWM.
The critical requirement for the control loop is that its
bandwidth be limited to about 30Hz. The crossover
frequency, fC of the control loop is shown in Equation 54:
fC =
1
2πRCFB
(EQ. 54)
Setting fC equal to 30Hz and solving for the RC time
constant τ yields Equation 55:
τ = RCFB =
1
60π
(EQ. 55)
For example, selecting CFB = 0.1µF, yields a value of 53kΩ
for R.
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Note 1387
The LED current is set by VREF and RS, but the current may
also be dynamically modulated using the IADJ input to vary
the reference setpoint. IADJ is typically used to vary the
intensity or color temperature.
VOUT
AC
AC
Power Stage
AC
PWM In
Return
PWM
Controller
CFB
Error
Voltage
R
-
FB
However, depending on the application, just paralleling LED
strings may cause unacceptable color temperature and/or
intensity variation among the LED strings. Additional circuitry
to force current balancing may be required.
Figure 11 shows a technique of paralleling LED strings with
current balancing. The method consists of a master LED
string and multiple slave strings in parallel. The LED driver
control loop regulates the current in the master LED string,
and the slave LED strings are individually regulated to match
the current through the master LED string. Diode D is
present only in the master LED string so that the linear pass
elements, Q, in the slave LED strings have sufficient voltage
across them to allow regulation. Alternatively, an extra LED
in the master string accomplishes the same result.
VOUT
+
VREF
+
-
RS
IADJ
FIGURE 10. INTEGRATING CONTROL LOOP
D
Using Multiple Parallel LED Strings
The previous discussion centered on a single string of LEDs
in series for the sake of clarity. For many applications, a
single string may be acceptable, but other applications may
require more light intensity than can be practically delivered
by a single string of LEDs. In these applications, additional
LEDs strings may be added in parallel.
Since the LED driver provides a single output, it cannot
control the current through each LED string. Unless there is
a mechanism to force equal currents through each LED
string, the currents will not be balanced. The magnitude of
the imbalance depends on the cumulative variation of
forward voltage drop across each LED in the string. If the
forward voltage distribution for each LED is random, then the
differences in the cumulative variation among the LED
strings tends to zero out as the number of LEDs in each
string increases.
The forward voltage drop across each LED may be
represented as a temperature dependent voltage in series
with a resistor. Fortunately, the resistance is rather large for
the LEDs under consideration. CREE XLamp 7090 LEDs, for
example, has an equivalent series resistance of
approximately 1.9Ω. The resistance tends to linearize the V-I
relationship of the LED so that variations in the voltage drop
due to temperature and process variation have a reduced
impact. Adding a discrete series resistor in each LED string
will further enhance current balance, but at the expense of
increased power dissipation.
10
RS
Q
Q
RS
RS
+
+
Return
FB
FIGURE 11. PARALLEL LED STRINGS WITH CURRENT
BALANCING
In some applications the number or type of LEDs in each
string may not be the same. In this case, having a common
supply voltage for each string mar result in excessive
dissipation in the linear pass elements. The solution is to
provide different supply voltages to each string by providing
winding taps on the transformer or inductor. Alternatively,
each string can be controlled by a separate switching
regulator.
References
1. "CREE Achieves Highest Efficacy from a High-Power
LED", CREE Press Release, September 13, 2007.
2. "Maximize Your Profit Potential with Sylvania HID Lamps.
High Intensity Discharge Lighting", OSRAM Sylvania
Product Information Bulletin CP103R3E, October 2007.
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Circuits
L
L1
82 uH
MSD1278-823MLB
CoilCraft
C2
0.1uF
275VAC
PME271M610MR30
EvoxRifa
F1
125VAC
TBD/TD
35V
L2
TBD mH
Optional EMI Filter
C1
0.22 uF 275VAC
PME271M622KR30
EvoxRifa
CR2
1A 400V
ES1G
1,2
R1
499k
1206
11
Z1
MOV
TMOV14R140E
LITTELFUSE
90 –140
VAC
-
CR1
2A 600V
2W06G
DIODES INC
R3
2.61k
2512
R5
49.9k
1206
R4
2.61k
2512
R6
49.9k
1206
3,4
>60 LED
STRING
C5
220pF 630V
1206
DNP
+
+
Q1
IRFR320
IR
Q2
350V
MJD47
R2
499k
1206
R15
100
2512
DNP
VR1
11V
RT1
TBD
Ametherm
C4
TBD
Electrolytic
R14
TBD
2512
R17
R17 = 1.225/Iout
RETURN
N
ExtVdd
U1
ISL6745
R19
90.9k
1 SS
VDD 10
R8
100k
R9
100k
2 RTD VDDP 9
3 VERR OUTB 8
NOTES: Unless otherwise specified
1) All components are 0805
2) All capacitors are ceramic 10%, 50V
3) All resistors are 1%
4) DNP= May not be required,
depending on power level and layout
5) TBD component vlaues depend on
quantity and type of LEDs used.
4 CS
OUTA 7
5 CT
GND 6
U2
LM358
R13
10.0
C8
220pF
- 2
1
+ 3
Q3
BSS138
- 6
+ 5
7
4
C7
1.0uF
C10
100.0uF
16V
Electrolytic
R7
30.1k
C9
330 pF
COG
R18
10.0k
R12
57.6k
8
R10
TBD
+
1
C6
0.1uF
U3
LM4041-1.2
C11
330pF
2
R11
100k
Iadj
FIGURE 12. DETAILED BOOST CONVERTER SCHEMATIC
Application Note 1387
CR3
MMBD4148
R16
100
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Circuits (Continued)
C2
0.1uF
275VAC
ECQU2A104ML
Panasonic
F1
125VAC
2A/TD
L
L3
TBD mH
Optional EMI Filter
C1
0.22 uF 275VAC
ECQU2A224ML
Panasonic
1,2
R3
2.61K
2512
R5
49.9K
1206
R4
2.61K
2512
R6
49.9K
1206
CR2
1A 400V
ES1G
35V Max
3,4
≥ 4 LED
STRING
1,2
R1
499K
1206
Z1
MOV
TMOV14R140E
LITTELFUSE
90 – 140
VAC
C3
0.1uF 250V
TDK C3225X7R2E104
1210
330 uH
MSD1278-334KLB
CoilCraft
-
CR1
2A 400V
2W04G
DIODES INC
+
12
Q1
IRFR320
IR
Q2
350V
MJD47
R2
499K
1206
L2
82 uH
MSD1278-823MLB
CoilCraft
+
3,4
C4
TBD
CR4
BAT54
R14
TBD
2512
VR1
11V
RT1
TBD
Ametherm
R17
R17=1.225/Iout
RETURN
N
ExtVdd
Application Note 1387
CR3
MMBD4148
R16
100
U1
ISL6745
1 SS
R8
100K
VDD 10
R9
100K
2 RTD VDDP 9
3 VERR OUTB 8
4 CS
OUTA 7
5 CT
GND 6
U2
LM358
R13
10.0
1206
C8
220pF
NOTES: Unless otherwise specified
1) All components are 0805
2) All capacitors are ceramic 10%, 50V
3) All resistors are 1%
4) DNP = May not be required,
depending on power level and layout
5) TBD component vlaues depend on
quantity and type of LEDs used.
- 2
1
+ 3
Q3
BSS138
- 6
+ 5
7
4
R10
TBD
+
C7
1.0uF
C10
100.0uF
16V
R7
30.1K
C9
330 pF
COG
R18
10.0K
R12
34.0K
8
1
C6
0.1uF
U3
LM4041-1.2
C11
330pF
2
R11
100K
Iadj
FIGURE 13. DETAILED SEPIC CONVERTER SCHEMATIC
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Application Circuits (Continued)
+Vout
13
85 –275 VAC
C1
0.1μF
250VAC
ECQU2A104ML
Panasonic
Z1
MOV
TMOV14R275E
LITTELFUSE
R1A
499K
1206
-
CR1
1.0A 800V
DF08S
Diodes, Inc
C4
1nF
630V
1206
COG/NPO
R3
38.0K
5%
2512
1W
R13
2.61K
2512
L
L1
330μH
RFB0807-331L
CoilCraft
CR4
TBD
T1
TBD
F1
TBD
250VAC
TD
R15
49.9K
1206
R14
2.61K
2512
R16
49.9K
1206
+
R12
10.0
2512
+
CR3
MURS160
Diodes, Inc
C14
TBDuF
100V
Electrolytic
C13
220pF
250V
0603
COG/NPO
R1B
499K
1206
Return
C2
0.1μF
250VAC
ECQU2A104ML
Panasonic
R1C
499K
1206
Q2
400V
MJD50
Fairchild
C3
0.047μF
250VAC
ECQU2A473ML
Panasonic
RT1
TBD
Ametherm
R6
R6=1.225/Iout
Q1
IRF420A
CR5
BAT54
VR1
11V
BZX84-C11
N
R17
100
VDD 10
1 SS
ExtVdd
CR3
MMSD4148
2 RTD VDDP 9
R8
100k
3 VERR OUTB 8
4 CS
OUTA 7
5 CT
GND 6
R8
3.01K
U1
ISL6745
1) All Resistors are 1%
0805 unless otherwise
specified
2) All capacitors are 10%
50V 0805 X7R ceramic
unless otherwise specified
3) TBD values are
dependent on the type and
quantity of LEDs used
R9
100k
U2
LM358
R13
10.0
1206
-
1
2
+ 3
Q2
BSS138
-
7
6
+ 5
4
+
C7
1.0uF
0805
R7
30.1K
C8
220pF
C9
330 pF
COG
C10
100.0uF
16V
Electrolytic
3
VR3
4.7V
BZX84-C4V7
1
R18
10.0k
R12
34.0k
8
R10
TBD
+
1
C6
0.1uF
C6
0.1uF
U3
LM4041DIM3-1.2
C11
330pF
2
R11
100k
Iadj
FIGURE 14. DETAILED FLYBACK CONVERTER SCHEMATIC
AN1387.0
February 12, 2009
Intersil Corporation reserves the right to make changes in circuit design, software and/or specifications at any time without notice. Accordingly, the reader is cautioned to verify that the Application Note or Technical Brief is
current before proceeding.
For information regarding Intersil Corporation and its products, see www.intersil.com
Application Note 1387
R4
0.430
2512
1W