AN1207

AN1207
Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) Topologies (Part II)
Author:
Antonio Bersani
Microchip Technology Inc.
INTRODUCTION
This application note is the second of a two-part series
on Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) topologies.
The first application note in this series, AN1114 “Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) Topologies (Part
I)”, explains the basics of different SMPS topologies,
while guiding the reader in selecting an appropriate
topology for a given application.
Part II of this series expands on the previous material
in Part I, and presents the basic tools needed to design
a power converter. All of the topologies introduced in
Part I are covered, and after a brief overview of the
basic functionality of each, equations to design real
systems are presented and analyzed. Before
continuing, it is recommended that you read and
become familiar with Part I of this series.
CONTENTS
This application note contains the following major
sections:
Requirements and Rules............................................ 1
Buck Converter .......................................................... 2
Boost Converter ....................................................... 14
Forward Converter ................................................... 18
Two-Switch Forward Converter................................ 30
Half-Bridge Converter .............................................. 39
Push-Pull Converter ................................................. 47
Full-Bridge Converter ............................................... 57
Flyback Converter .................................................... 66
Voltage and Current Topologies ............................... 76
Conclusion ............................................................. 104
References............................................................. 104
Source Code .......................................................... 105
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
REQUIREMENTS AND RULES
The following requirements and rules were used to
determine the various component values used in the
design of a power converter.
The general design requirements are listed as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nominal input voltage (VDC)
Minimum input voltage (VDC, min)
Maximum input voltage (VDC, max)
Output voltage (VOUT)
Nominal average output current (IO, av, nom)
Nominal minimum output current (IO, av, min)
Maximum ripple voltage (VR, max)
In addition, a few common rules were used for
component selection:
• MOSFETs (or switches) must be able to:
- Withstand the maximum voltage
- Withstand the maximum current
- Operate efficiently and correctly at the frequency
of the PWM
- Operate in the SOA (dependant on dissipation)
• Diodes must be able to:
- Withstand the maximum reverse voltage
- Withstand the average current
Arrows are used in the circuit schematics to represent
voltages. The voltage polarity is not directly reflected by
the arrow itself (meaning if the voltage reverses, the
arrow is not reversed, but that the value of the voltage
is negative).
DS01207B-page 1
AN1207
BUCK CONVERTER
FIGURE 2:
BUCK CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY: TON PERIOD
The Buck Converter converts a high input voltage into
a lower output voltage. It is preferred over linear
regulators for its higher efficiency.
LO
Q1
Topology Equations
VL
Figure 1 shows the basic topology of a Buck Converter.
The Q1 switch is operated with a fixed frequency and
variable duty cycle signal.
FIGURE 1:
BUCK CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY
CO
Based on Figure 2, the voltage on the inductor is as
shown in Equation 3.
LO
VI
EQUATION 3:
Q1
VL
VDC
VOUT
D1
VDC
D1
VOUT
CO
Accordingly, voltage VI is a square-wave s(t). The
Fourier series of such a signal is shown in Equation 1.
EQUATION 1:
τ
s ( t ) = A --- + Σsin
T
V L = V DC – V Q, on – V OUT
The inductor current (having a constant time derivative
value) is a ramp:
( V DC – V Q, on – V OUT )
i L ( t ) = i L ( 0 ) + -------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
At time TON, equals:
( V DC – V Q, on – V OUT )
i L ( T ON ) = i L ( 0 ) + -------------------------------------------------------- T ON
LO
Where TON is the duration of the time interval when the
switch Q1 is closed.
waves_with_frequency_multiple_of_the_square_wave_frequency
where:
τ = the duty cycle
T = the period
A = the square-wave amplitude
This means that the square-wave can be represented
as a sum of a DC value and a number of sine waves at
different, increasing (multiple) frequencies. If this signal
is processed through a low-pass filter (Equation 2), the
resulting output (DC value only) is received.
Q1 OPEN (TOFF PERIOD)
As shown in Figure 3, when the switch Q1 opens, the
inductor will try to keep the current flowing as before.
FIGURE 3:
BUCK CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY: TOFF PERIOD
LO
Q1
EQUATION 2:
VL
τ
s f ( t ) = A --- = const
T
VDC
VOUT
D1
CO
A LoCo low-pass filter extracts from the square-wave
its DC value and attenuates the fundamental and
harmonics to a desired level.
Q1 CLOSED (TON PERIOD)
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 2. The diode is reverse-biased so that it
becomes an open circuit.
DS01207B-page 2
As a result, the voltage at the D1, LO, Q1 intersection
will abruptly try to become very negative to support the
continuous flow of current in the same direction (see
Figure 4).
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 4:
INDUCTOR BEHAVIOR
IL
VL
During TON, the inductor is
storing energy into its
magnetic field (VL > 0).
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
What has been described until now is called Continuous mode. To understand what it is and its importance,
refer to Figure 5(G), which represents the inductor current. As previously seen, there is a ramp-up during TON
and a ramp-down during TOFF.
The average current can be computed easily using
Equation 6.
VL
During TOFF, the inductor is
releasing energy previously
stored (VL < 0).
IL
Equation 4 shows the resulting inductor voltage, while
Equation 5 shows the current.
EQUATION 4:
V L = – V OUT – V D, on
EQUATION 6:
I2 + I1
I L, av = --------------2
The average inductor current is also the current flowing
to the output, so the output average current is equal to
Equation 7.
EQUATION 7:
I2 + I1
I O, av = --------------2
EQUATION 5:
– V OUT – V D, on
i L ( t ) = i L ( T ON ) + ------------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 3
AN1207
FIGURE 5:
BUCK CONVERTER WAVEFORMS
Q1 Command
t
(A)
t
(B)
VDC + VD, on
VQ 1
I2
I1
IQ 1
t
(C)
VD 1
t
(D)
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
(-VDC + VQ, on)
I2
I1
ID 1
VDC - VOUT
A
VL
B
-VOUT
I2
I1
IL
TOFF
TON
T
(A) = Command signal and MOSFET gate
(E) = Current in D1 diode
(B) = Voltage and MOSFET
(F) = Voltage on LO inductor
(C) = Current flowing into MOSFET
(G) = Current in LO inductor
(D) = Voltage on D1 diode
DS01207B-page 4
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Supposing the output load RO (connected in parallel to
the output capacitor CO) changes by increasing, this
change has the effect of reducing the average output
current. As shown in Figure 6, current moves from line
A for the nominal load, to line B for a larger load. What
should be noted is that the slopes of the two ramps,
both during TON and TOFF, do not change because,
they only depend on VDC, VOUT and L, and they have
not been changed. As a consequence, increasing the
load results in RO becoming greater. Since VO equals
constant (the control loop explained earlier handles
this) and RO increases, the current diminishes.
FIGURE 6:
INDUCTOR CURRENT AT DIFFERENT LOADS
T
VL
TOFF
TON
Increasing load
(reducing IO, av)
A
B
C
D
TON
CONTINUOUS MODE
Operating in the Continuous mode is so named since
the current in the inductor never stops flowing (goes to
zero).
As shown in Figure 6, if the load continues to increase
(reducing IO, av), at some time the inductor current plot
will touch the x-axis (line C). This means the initial and
final current (at the beginning and the end of the switching period) in the inductor is zero. At this point, the
inductor current enters what is considered as Critical
mode.
If the load is further increased, the current during the
down-ramp will reach zero before the end of the period
T (line D), which is known as Discontinuous mode.
Note:
t
Using the value of IL(TON) derived from Equation 3 and
Equation 5 creates the relationship shown in
Equation 8.
EQUATION 8:
Δ IL ∝ (V DC – V Q, on – V OUT)T ON = ( V OUT + V D, on)TOFF
Neglecting VD, on and VQ, on, Equation 8 can be
solved for VOUT, as shown in Equation 9.
EQUATION 9:
V OUT = V DC D
where D = Ton / T (duty cycle), or
In Discontinuous mode, the only way to
further decrease the inductor current is to
reduce the ON time (TON).
One key point is that the inductor current at the end of
the TOFF period must equal the inductor current at the
beginning of the TON period, meaning the net change in
current in one period must be zero. This must be true
at Steady state, when all transients have finished, and
the circuit behavior is no longer changing.
V OUT
D = ------------V DC
The maximum duty cycle is achieved when the input
voltage is at its minimum, as shown in Equation 10.
EQUATION 10:
V OUT
D max = -------------------V DC, min
Therefore, D must obviously be between ‘0’ and ‘1’.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 5
AN1207
DISCONTINUOUS MODE
In Discontinuous mode, the inductor current goes to
zero before the period T ends.
The inductor (output) average current (IO, av, min) that
determines the edge between Continuous and Discontinuous mode can be easily determined, as shown
Figure 7.
FIGURE 7:
INDUCTOR CURRENT AT THE EDGE OF DISCONTINUOUS MODE
IL
IL, peak = I2
IO, limit
I1
t
TON
TOFF
T
Based on Figure 7, the inductor current limit is equal to
Equation 11.
EQUATION 11:
1
1
1
I O, limit = --- I L, peak = --- ( I 2 – I 1 ) = --- I 2
2
2
2
From this point on, the behavior of the Buck Converter
changes radically.
If the load continues to increase, the only possibility the
system has to reduce the current, is to reduce the duty
cycle (Figure 6). However, this means that a linear relationship, as shown in Equation 9, no longer exists
between input and output.
DS01207B-page 6
The relationship between VDC, VOUT and D can be
obtained with some additional effort, as shown in
Equation 12.
EQUATION 12:
IO
----------------V OUT I O, limit
D = ------------- ----------------------V DC
V OUT
1 – ------------V DC
Figure 8 illustrates this relationship.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 8:
DUTY CYCLE IN CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS REGIONS
D
1
VDC/VOUT = 1.25
(A)
Discontinuous region
VDC/VOUT = 2
Continuous region
VDC/VOUT = 5.0
IO/IO, limit
1
As shown in Figure 8, starting from the continuous
region and moving along line (A), where D = 0.5, as
soon the boundary between continuous and
discontinuous regions (dotted line) is crossed, to keep
the same output voltage (VDC/VOUT = 2), D changes
according to the nonlinear relation in Equation 12.
Design Equations and Component
Selection
This section determines the equations that enable the
design of a Continuous mode Buck Converter.
INDUCTOR
The average minimum current (IO, av, min) is set as the
average output current at the boundary of Discontinuous mode (Figure 7). This way, for any current larger
than IO, av, min, the system will operate in Continuous
mode. Usually it is a percentage of IO, av, nom, where
a common value is 10%, as shown in Equation 13.
EQUATION 13:
( V DC, nom – V OOUT )
1
I o, av, min = I O, limit = 0.1 I o, av, nom = --- I 2 = -------------------------------------------------- T ON
2
2L O
Solving Equation 13 with respect to LO results in
Equation 14.
EQUATION 14:
5 ( V DC, nom – V OUT )V OUT
L O = ---------------------------------------------------------------V DC, nom F PWM I O, av, nom
where FPWM is the PWM frequency (FPWM =1/T)
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
Power Losses In The Inductor
Power losses in the inductor are represented by
Equation 15.
EQUATION 15:
2
P LOSS, inductor = ( I O, av, nom ) ESR
where ESR is the equivalent inductor resistance
DS01207B-page 7
AN1207
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
Power Losses in the Capacitor
The current ripple generates an output voltage ripple
having two components, as shown in Figure 9.
Power losses dissipated in the capacitor are shown in
Equation 19.
FIGURE 9:
EQUATION 19:
MODEL OF THE OUTPUT
CAPACITOR CO
2
P LOSS, capacitor = ΔI L R ESR
CO
DIODE
RESR (ESR)
LESL (ESL)
Referring to Figure 5(E), the current flowing through
the diode during TOFF is the inductor current. It is easy
then to compute the average diode current using
Equation 20.
EQUATION 20:
The first component of the ripple voltage (VR) is caused
by the effect series resistance (ESR) of the output
capacitor. This resistance is shown in Figure 9 as
RESR.
The second component, VR,CO, comes from the
voltage drop caused by the current flowing through the
capacitor, which results in Equation 16.
I D, av = I O, av, nom ( 1 – D )
The maximum reverse voltage the diode has to withstand is during TON (see Figure 5(D)), as shown in
Equation 21.
EQUATION 21:
V R, max = – V DC, max + V Q, on
EQUATION 16:
V R, ESR = R ESR ( I 2 – I 1 ) = R ESR ΔI L
where (I2 - I1) is the ripple current flowing in the inductor
and to the output (at the edge of Discontinuous mode,
which is: ΔIL = 2 IO, limit), and
1
V R, C = ------- i∫C ( t ) dt
O
CO
Power Dissipation Computation in the Diode
Because voltage on the diode is non-zero (VR), but the
current is zero, dissipation during TON is equal to
Equation 22.
EQUATION 22:
P D, T
= 0
The two contributions are not in phase; however, considering the worst case, if they are summed in phase,
this results in one switching period, as shown in
Equation 17.
Dissipation during TOFF is equal to Equation 23.
EQUATION 17:
EQUATION 23:
1
D
ΔV R, total = R ESR ΔI L + ------- ΔI L --------------CO
F PWM
P D, T
By rearranging terms, the required capacitor value
needed to guarantee the specified output voltage ripple
is shown in Equation 18.
MOSFET
EQUATION 18:
CO
ΔI L D
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------F PWM [ ΔV R, total – R ESR ΔI L ]
DS01207B-page 8
OFF
ON
T OFF
= V f I O, av, nom ------------- = V f I O, av, nom ( 1 – D )
T
The maximum voltage on the switch (see Figure 5(B))
during TOFF is shown in Equation 24.
EQUATION 24:
V Q, max = V DC, max + V D, on
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
The average current (Figure 5(C)) during TON is shown
in Equation 25.
During TOFF, the voltage on Q1 is VDC + VD, on
(Figure 5(B)), but the current is zero. As shown in
Equation 28, there is no contribution to the dissipated
power.
EQUATION 25:
I Q, av = I O, av, nom D
EQUATION 28:
P Q1, static, T
MOSFET Power Losses Computation
Static Dissipation
Figure 10 illustrates what occurs during switching.
There are two events to consider: turn-on (Q1 closes)
and turn-off (Q1 opens).
In both cases, voltage and current do not change
abruptly, but have a linear behavior. The representation
in Figure 10 is the worst-case possibility where at turnon the voltage VQ1 remains constant at VDC, while the
current is ramping up from zero to its maximum value.
Only at this moment does the voltage start falling to its
minimum value of VF. In reality, the two ramps will
somehow overlap; however, since this is the worst
case, this depicted situation is considered the current
switching event. Therefore, at turn-on the power is
equal to Equation 29.
EQUATION 26:
ON
= 0
Switching Dissipation
During TON, the average current flowing in Q1 is IO, av,
nom • D and the voltage is V = Vf, the switch forward
voltage, which results in Equation 26. This value is
small since VF is relatively small.
P Q1, static, T
OFF
T ON
= V f I O, av, nom ---------- = DV f I O, av, nom
T
This same loss can be expressed using the RDS(ON) of
the MOSFET, taking care to determine from the
component data sheet the value of RDS(ON) at the
expected junction temperature (RDS(ON) grows with
temperature). This term can be written as shown in
Equation 27.
EQUATION 27:
P Q1, static, T
2
ON
= D ( I O, av, nom ) R DS ( ON ) hightemp
FIGURE 10:
MOSFET SWITCHING LOSS COMPUTATION WAVEFORMS
VQ 1
TVR
TVF
IQ 1
t
TCR
TCF
TON
TOFF
T
Turn-on
Turn-off
EQUATION 29:
P Q1, switching, turnon =
1
1
= --- ∫ V Q1 I Q1 dt ≅ --T
T
T CR
∫
0
I O, av, nom
1
V DC ----------------------- tdt + --T CR
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
T VF
∫
0
V DC I O, av, nom T CR V DC I O, av, nom T VF
V DC
I O, av, nom ⎛ ----------⎞ t dt = ---------------------------------- --------- + ---------------------------------- --------⎝ T VF ⎠
2
T
2
T
DS01207B-page 9
AN1207
If TCR is equal to Equation 30, the result of Equation 29
can be simplified, as shown in Equation 31.
EQUATION 30:
T CR = T VF = T SW
EQUATION 31:
T SW
P Q1, switching, turnon = V DC I O, av, nom ---------T
At turn-off the switching loss can be calculated using
Equation 32.
EQUATION 32:
P Q1, switching, turn – off =
1
1
= --- ∫ V Q1 I Q1 dt ≅ --T
T
T VR
V DC
1
- tdt + --∫ IO, av, nom --------T VR
T
0
T CF
I O, av, nom
V DC I O, av, nom T VR
V DC I O, av, nom T CF
tdt = ---------------------------------- --------- + ---------------------------------- --------∫ VDC ----------------------T CF
T
2
T
2
0
Again, if TVR is equal to Equation 33, this computation
results in Equation 34.
EQUATION 33:
T VR = T CF = T SW
EQUATION 34:
T SW
P Q1, switching, turn – off = V DC I O, av, nom ---------T
The total dissipation in the MOSFET is shown in
Equation 35.
EQUATION 35:
P Q1, total = P Q1, static, T
DS01207B-page 10
ON
T SW
+ P Q1, switching, turn – on + P Q1, switching, turn – off = DV f I O, av, nom + 2V DC I O, av, nom ---------T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Buck Converter Design Example
This section shows how the equations previously discussed are to be used in the design process of a Buck
Converter. In addition, the typical design requirements
and how they influence the design are also discussed.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.
The design requirements are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Input voltage: VDC = 12V ±30%
Output voltage: VOUT = 5V
IO nominal = IO, av, nom = 2A
IO limit = 0.1 IO, av, nom = 0.2A
(I2 - I1) = ΔIL = 2 IO, limit = 0.4A
Switching frequency = 200 kHz
Output ripple voltage = 50 mV
Input ripple voltage = 200 mV
DESIGN PROCESS
Duty Cycle Computation
The converter is supposed to operate in Continuous
mode, so that Equation 9 holds and:
• Dnominal = VOUT/VDC = 5/12 = 0.42.
In addition, the maximum and minimum available input
voltages will be computed:
• Minimum input voltage = 8.5V
• Maximum input voltage = 15.5V
Inductor
According to Equation 14, the nominal value of the
inductor (Continuous mode) is equal to Equation 36.
EQUATION 36:
5 ( V DC – V OUT ) V OUT 1
5 ⋅ ( 12 – 5 ) 5
1
L o = -------------------------------------- ------------- --------------- = --------------------------- ⋅ ------ ⋅ ------------- = 36μH
I O, av, nom
V DC F PWM
2
12 200K
The inductor required to place the system in Continuous mode with the maximum input voltage is shown in
Equation 37.
EQUATION 37:
V DC – V OUT V OUT 1
15.5 – 5 5
1
L O, M = ------------------------------- ------------- --------------- = ------------------- ⋅ ---------- ⋅ ------------- = 42μH
0.2I O, av, nom V DC F PWM 0.2 ⋅ 2 15.5 200K
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 11
AN1207
The required inductor with the minimum input voltage is
shown in Equation 38.
EQUATION 38:
V DC – V OUT V OUT 1
8.5 – 5 5
1
L O, m = ------------------------------- ------------- --------------- = ---------------- ⋅ ------- ⋅ ------------- = 26μH
0.2I O, av, nom V DC F PWM 0.2 ⋅ 2 8.5 200K
An inductor of at least 42 µH will prevent the converter
from going discontinuous over the full input voltage
range.
In fact, if the smallest inductor, L = 26 µH is selected,
the maximum input voltage (VDC = 15.5V) would result
in a current ripple of I2 - I1 = 0.85A. Conversely, the
inductor L = 42 µH with an input voltage of 8.5V gives
a current ripple of 0.17A. This means that any inductor
greater than 42 µH will fit.
Output Capacitance
Equation 39 is supposing to select a capacitance
having ESR = 30 mΩ.
EQUATION 39:
ΔI L D
0.4 ⋅ 0.42
= 22μF
C = --------------------------------------------------------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------–3
–3
F PWM [ V RIPPLE – R ESR ΔI L ]
200K [ 50 ⋅ 10 – 30 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 0.4 ]
Input Capacitor
Using the same approach to compute the output
capacitance, the input capacitance is then calculated
using Equation 40.
EQUATION 40:
ΔI L D
0.4 ⋅ 0.42
- = 4.5μF
C = --------------------------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------------3
F PWM [ V RIPPLE – R ESR ΔI L ]
200K [ 0.2 – 30 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 0.4 ]
Free-Wheeling Diode Selection
Based on Equation 21 (see also Figure 5(D)), the maximum reverse voltage on the diode during TON is then
calculated, as shown in Equation 41.
EQUATION 41:
V R, max = – V DC, max + V Q, on ≈ – 15.5V
According to Equation 20, the average current in the
diode is calculated, as shown in Equation 42.
EQUATION 42:
I D, av = I O, av, nom ( 1 – D ) = 2 ⋅ ( 1 – 0.42 ) = 1.16A
DS01207B-page 12
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
MOSFET selection
The key parameters for the selection of the MOSFET are
the average current and the maximum voltage (referring
to Equation 24 and Equation 25). The resulting
calculations are shown in Equation 43 and Equation 44.
EQUATION 43:
V Q, max = V DC, max + V D ≈ 15.5V
EQUATION 44:
I Q, av = I O, av, nom D = 2 ⋅ 0.42 = 0.84A
The power dissipated in the MOSFET can be computed with Equation 35, which results in Equation 45,
where typical values of VF = 1V and Tsw = 100 ns are
used.
EQUATION 45:
T SW
100ns
P LOSS, max = DV f I O, av, nom + 2V DC I O, av, nom ---------- = 0.42 ⋅ 1V ⋅ 2A + 2 ⋅ 15.5V ⋅ 2A ⋅ --------------- = 0.84 + 1.24 = 2.08W
T
5μs
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 13
AN1207
BOOST CONVERTER
Q1 OPEN (TOFF PERIOD)
A Boost Converter converts a lower input voltage to a
higher output voltage.
When the switch opens (Figure 13), and since the
inductor current cannot change abruptly, the voltage
must change polarity. Current then begins flowing
through the diode, which becomes forward-biased.
Topology Equations
Figure 11 shows the essential topology of a Boost
Converter.
FIGURE 11:
FIGURE 13:
BOOST CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY: TOFF PERIOD
VL
BOOST CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY
VD
L1
D1
VL
VOUT
Q1
VDC
L1
D1
RO
VOUT
Q1
VDC
VOUT
CO
CO
RO
The resulting inductor voltage is shown in Equation 48.
EQUATION 48:
Q1 CLOSED (TON PERIOD)
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 12.
FIGURE 12:
BOOST CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY: TON PERIOD
VL
VOUT
L1
EQUATION 49:
VOUT
CO
RO
The resulting voltage on the inductor is shown in
Equation 46.
EQUATION 46:
V L = V DC – V Q, on
Based on the inductor equation (Equation 46) the
current results are shown in Equation 47.
EQUATION 47:
( V DC – V Q, on )
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + ------------------------------------ t
L1
DS01207B-page 14
The current flowing into the inductor during TOFF, which
is ramping down, is computed using Equation 49.
V DC – V D, on – V OUT
I L ( t ) = I ( T ON ) + --------------------------------------------------- t
L1
D1
Q1
VDC
V L = V DC – V D, on – V OUT < 0
OPERATING MODES
Like the Buck Converter, the Boost Converter can also
be operated in Continuous and Discontinuous modes.
The difference between the two modes is in the inductor current. In Continuous mode it never goes to zero,
whereas in Discontinuous mode, the falling inductor
current in the TOFF period reaches zero before the start
of the following PWM period.
As in the case of the Buck Converter, the Boost Converter can be used in both modes. In either case, the
control loop must be considered. A solution for one
mode does not necessarily work well with the other.
Continuous Operating Mode
As usual, the two areas below the inductor voltage
during TON and TOFF must be equal. This means that
the current at the beginning of the PWM period equals
the current at the end (Steady state condition) of the
PWM period. Using Equation 47 and Equation 49, the
relation shown in Equation 50 can be made.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
EQUATION 50:
EQUATION 52:
2
V DC
V OUT = ------------1–D
L1 I P
P L = ------------2T
where Ip is the inductor peak current
where D is the duty cycle of the PWM signal.
It is important to note that this is a nonlinear relationship
(Figure 14), unlike the Buck transfer function.
The power delivered to the load by the input during
TOFF is shown in Equation 53.
If a lossless circuit is assumed, PO = PDC, VOIO =
VDCIDC, resulting in Equation 51.
EQUATION 53:
IP TF
P DC = V DC ----------2T
EQUATION 51:
IO
-------- = (1 – D)
I DC
where TF, as indicated in Figure 15(G), is the portion of the
TOFF period from TON to when the inductor current reaches
zero.
Discontinuous Operating Mode
The total power delivered to the load is the sum of
Equation 52 and Equation 53. The peak current is
derived from Equation 47. If TON + TF = kT, the results
are that of Equation 54.
To find the I/O relationship, a different approach is used
where energy is considered, which differs from the
approach used for Buck Converters.
The total power (PT) delivered to the load comes from
the contribution of the magnetic field in the inductor
and, during TOFF, from the input voltage VDC.
EQUATION 54:
kR O T ON
V OUT = V DC -------------------2L 1
The power delivered from the inductor (assuming
100% efficiency) is shown in Equation 52.
where RO is the output load resistor
FIGURE 14:
VO/VDC
120
100
80
60
Series1
40
20
D%
0
1
5
9
13
17
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
57
61
65
69
73
77
81
85
89
93
97
DS01207B-page 15
AN1207
FIGURE 15:
BOOST CONVERTER WAVEFORMS (DISCONTINUOUS MODE)
TON
TOFF
Q1 Command
VD + VOUT
VQ 1
IQ 1
VD 1
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
t
(D)
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
(A)
-VOUT + VQ
ID 1
VDC
VL
(B)
VDC - VOUT
IL
TF
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(E) = Current in D1 diode
(B) = Voltage on Q1 MOSFET
(F) = Voltage on LO inductor
(C) = Current flowing into Q1 MOSFET
(G) = Current in LO inductor
(D) = Voltage on D1 diode
DS01207B-page 16
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Design Equations and Component
Selection
As previously discussed, in Continuous mode, the
input/output relationship is equal to Equation 50. In
Discontinuous mode, this relationship is equal to
Equation 54. The maximum ON time will correspond to
the minimum input voltage, VDC.
The duty cycle can be chosen so that in Equation 54
TON + TF = kT < T, with 0 < k < 1.
EQUATION 59:
I O, av, nom T ON
V DROP, on = ---------------------------------- < V RIPPLE
C
A simplified representation is shown in Equation 60.
EQUATION 60:
I O, av, nom T ON
C > ---------------------------------V RIPPLE
Combining Equation 47 and Equation 49, and using
the previous definition for TON + TF, gives an equation
for TON, max, as shown in Equation 55. The resulting
maximum duty cycle is shown in Equation 56.
DIODE
EQUATION 55:
During TON, the diode D1 is open with the maximum
reverse voltage, as shown in Equation 61.
kT ( V OUT – V DC, min )
T ON, max = ---------------------------------------------------V OUT
EQUATION 61:
V R, max = – V OUT + V Q, on
EQUATION 56:
k ( V OUT – V DC, min )
D max = -----------------------------------------------V OUT
The average current in D1 during TOFF is shown in
Equation 62.
EQUATION 62:
INDUCTOR.
TF
I D, av = I O, av, nom -----TT
It is possible to compute the inductor L1 using
Equation 54. The maximum TON, minimum VDC and
minimum RO are assumed, which results in
Equation 57.
MOSFET
EQUATION 57:
The average current represented in Figure 13 is shown
in Equation 63.
kR O, min D max V DC, min 2
L 1 = --------------------------------- ⎛ --------------------⎞
2F PWM ⎝ V OUT ⎠
EQUATION 63:
T ON
I Q1, av = I O, av, nom ---------T
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The output capacitor must be able to supply the output
current during TON, without having a voltage drop
greater than the maximum allowed output ripple.
The maximum voltage represented in Figure 12 is
shown in Equation 64.
Since the capacitor is large, it is possible to approximate the exponential discharge with a linear behavior.
The current drawn from the capacitor is the average
output current (IO, av, nom) and the charge lost during
TON is equal to Equation 58. Therefore, the voltage
drop is equal to Equation 59.
EQUATION 64:
V Q, max = V OUT + V D
EQUATION 58:
Q ON = I O, av, nom T ON
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 17
AN1207
FORWARD CONVERTER
The topology of a Forward Converter, shown in
Figure 16, can be considered a direct derivative of the
Push-Pull Converter, where one of the switches is
replaced by a diode. As a consequence, the cost is
usually lower, which makes this topology very common.
FIGURE 16:
FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
NR
D1
VA
VR
D2
LO
VB
B
A
VL
NS
D3
NP
CO
RO
VOUT
VS
VP
VDC
Q1
Topology Equations
Referring to the section on Forward Converters in
AN1114 (see “Introduction”), the behavior of the system can be quickly summarized. The switch is driven
by a waveform, whose duty cycle must be less than
50%, as shown in Figure 17.
FIGURE 17:
Q1 MOSFET COMMAND SIGNAL TIMING
TOFF
Q1 Command
TON
TR
DS01207B-page 18
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 ON (INTERVAL 0 - TON)
For this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown
in Figure 18.
FIGURE 18:
FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL 0 - TON
NR
D1
VA
VR
D2
A
LO
VB
B
VL
NS
NP
CO
D3
RO
VOUT
VS
VP
VDC
Q1
Input Circuit Behavior
The input voltage is directly connected to the winding
NP, and consequently, the dot end of this winding is
positive respect to the non-dot end. Similarly the dot
end of NR has a higher voltage than the non-dot end.
Diode D1 is reverse-biased and no current flows into
the winding NR. The voltage on the winding NP is
shown in Equation 65.
EQUATION 65:
V P, on = V DC – V Q, on
The voltage on winding NR is shown in Equation 66.
EQUATION 66:
NR
NR
V R = ------- V P, on = ------- ( V DC – V Q, on )
NP
NP
The magnetizing current flowing into the NP windings
and the switch Q1 circuit (current that would be flowing
into the transformer if the secondary winding were
open), is equal to Equation 67.
EQUATION 67:
VP
V DC – V Q, on
I M ( t ) = ------- t = ------------------------------- t
LM
LM
A positive-slope ramp whose maximum value is
reached at TON is shown in Equation 68.
EQUATION 68:
V DC – V Q, on
I M ( T ON ) = ------------------------------- T ON
LM
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
The total current flowing into NP is the sum of the magnetizing current and the output current reflected to the
primary through the transformer.
Output Circuit Behavior
Because of the voltage polarity on the primary
windings, the dot end of the secondary winding is
positive compared to its non-dot end. Consequently,
D2 is forward-biased, while D3 is reverse-biased.
The secondary
Equation 69.
winding
voltage
is
shown
in
EQUATION 69:
NS
V S = ------- ( V DC – V Q, on )
NP
The voltage to the right of the rectifying diode D2 is
shown in Equation 70.
EQUATION 70:
NS
V B = V S – V D, on = ------- ( V DC – V Q, on ) – V D, on
NP
The voltage on the output inductor is shown in
Equation 71.
EQUATION 71:
NS
V L = ------- ( V DC – V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
NP
The current flowing through the output inductor and
through D2 is shown in Equation 72.
DS01207B-page 19
AN1207
EQUATION 72:
N
------S- ( V DC – V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
NP
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
At this point, the total current flowing into the primary
can be computed. It has two contributions: the magnetizing current (see Equation 67) and the load current
reflected back into the primary, as shown in
Equation 73.
EQUATION 73:
I P, total
N
------S- ( V – V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
V DC – V Q, on N S N P DC
= I L ( 0 ) + ------------------------------- t + ------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
NP
LO
LM
Q1 OFF [INTERVAL TON - (TON + TR)]
Based on this configuration, the circuit is redrawn, as
shown in Figure 19.
FIGURE 19:
FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL TON - (TON + TR)
NR
VA
D1
VR
A
D2
LO
VB
B
VL
NS
NP
VDC
D3
CO
RO
VOUT
VS
VP
Q1
DS01207B-page 20
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
Before the switch Q1 was opened, the magnetizing
current was flowing in NP. When the switch opens, it
reverses all the voltages to continue the flow. The dot
end of NR becomes negative in respect to the non-dot
end, and a similar behavior is experienced by the
winding NP. Because of the polarity on NR, diode D1
becomes forward-biased and keeps the voltage at the
dot end of NR, one diode drop below ground.
Magnetizing current can now flow through NR and
diode D1 into the power supply VDC, as shown in
Figure 19. The voltage VR on NR is shown in
Equation 74.
As previously mentioned, the magnetizing current
reverses all voltages when the switch Q1 turns off. As
a result, the dot end of the secondary winding is more
negative than the non-dot end and diode D2 becomes
reverse-biased.
EQUATION 74:
To keep the current flowing into inductor LO, its voltage
reverses so that the left end of the inductor is more negative than the right end, and it would continuously
decrease; however, the freewheeling diode D3,
becoming forward-biased and sets VB to a diode voltage drop below ground. The voltage on the inductor is
now equal to Equation 78.
V R = – ( V DC + V D, on ) < 0
The voltage on NP is shown in Equation 75.
EQUATION 75:
V P, off
NP
= – ------- ( V DC + V D, on ) < 0
NR
The secondary voltage is shown in Equation 77.
EQUATION 77:
NS
V S, off = – ------- ( V DC + V D, on )
NR
EQUATION 78:
V L = – V OUT – V D, on
When t = TON, the current in the reset winding equals
the magnetizing current IM multiplied by the windings
ration, as shown in Equation 76.
Consequently the inductor current will decrease
according to Equation 79:
EQUATION 76:
EQUATION 79:
NP
I R = ------- I M
NR
V OUT + V D, on
I L ( t ) = I ( T ON ) – ---------------------------------- t
LO
During TR, this current has a down-slope and reaches
zero when t = TON + TR.
This current is the same current that is flowing into the
free-wheeling diode D3.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 21
AN1207
Q1 OFF [INTERVAL (TON + TR) TO T]
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 20.
FIGURE 20:
FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL (TON + TR) - T
NR
D1
VA
VR
D2
A
LO
VB
B
VL
NS
NP
CO
D3
RO
VOUT
VS
VP
VDC
Q1
Input Circuit Behavior
EQUATION 81:
As soon as the magnetizing current reaches zero (at
TON + TR), all of the energy that had been stored into
the transformer when TON has been released and
diode D1 opens. Consequently, the voltage drop on NR
becomes zero and the voltages at both the dot end and
the non-dot end of NR equal VDC. The voltage drop on
NP equally becomes zero, so that now the voltage
applied to the switch is VDC.
The magnetizing current, at time t = 0 and t = TON + TR
is zero (at Steady state). Therefore, ΔIM during TON
must equal ΔIM during TR, which is represented by
Equation 82 (refer to Equation 65 and Equation 75).
Output Circuit Behavior
EQUATION 82:
Nothing changes compared to the previous time
interval.
Design Equations and Component
Selection
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
At the output, at steady state, the current in the inductor
LO at t = 0, must equal the current at t = T. Expressing
the inductor voltage as a function of the inductor current based on Equation 72 and Equation 78, results in
Equation 80, which in turn solves Equation 81.
EQUATION 80:
N
------S- ( V DC – V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
NP
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ TON =
LO
V OUT + V D, on
= ---------------------------------- T OFF
LO
DS01207B-page 22
NS
V OUT = ------- ( V DC – V Q, on )D – V D, on
NP
V DC
N V DC
N
---------- T ON = ------P- --------- T ⇒ T ON = ------P- T R
LM
NR LM R
NR
The circuit is now running at the maximum duty cycle
when TR equals TOFF, which means the full TOFF period
is needed to nullify the magnetizing current. In this
case, in Equation 82, TR is replaced with its maximum
theoretical value TOFF, so that TON, max, as shown in
Equation 83, is derived from Equation 84.
EQUATION 83:
NP
NP
T ON, max = ------- T OFF ⇒ T ON, max = ------- ( T – T ON, max )
NR
NR
EQUATION 84:
1
D max, theoretical = ---------------NR
1 + ------NP
In the case of NR = NP, Dmax, theoretical = 0.5.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY
The core of the transformer during operation moves in
the first quadrant of the hysteresis curve.
The change in flux, according to the Faraday law, as
shown in Equation 85, is proportional to the product of
the applied voltage VP, and the time Tx, during which
this voltage is present.
EQUATION 85:
In general, TON + TR = kT; the maximum value for TON
is chosen as TON, max = kT/2 when NP = NR. As indicated in Figure 21, the maximum value of TON is also
dependent on the ration NP/NR. Based on the characteristics of the transformer core, ΔB is defined. From
Equation 85, the primary number of turns can be determined, considering the minimum value of VDC and consequently, the maximum duty cycle as shown in
Equation 86.
EQUATION 86:
VP ⋅ TX
ΔB = -------------------N P A core
2
where the units are Tesla for ΔB and m for Acore
During TON, this product equals (VDCTON), while during
TR the product is NPVDC(TR)/NR, based on Equation 65
and Equation 75, neglecting VQ, on and VD, on.
In Figure 22(F), the product (VDCTON) equals area A1,
while VDCNPTR/NR equals area A2.
It is preferable to have a net ΔB = 0, so that in the
hysteresis plane, the operating point at the end of the
PWM period has come back to the initial point. This
guarantees that the system will never drift toward
saturation.
D max
N P = ------------------------------------ ( V DC, min – V Q, on )
F PWM A core ΔB
Replacing NP in Equation 81 and neglecting VD, on,
results in Equation 87.
EQUATION 87:
V OUT
N S = -----------------------------------F PWM A core ΔB
NR can be determined by considering the behavior
described in Figure 21.
The point is that the condition can easily be fulfilled,
with different values of the ratio NP/NR by selecting a
different number of turns on the two windings (see
Figure 21). This provides an additional degree of
freedom in the design of the system.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 23
AN1207
FIGURE 21:
FORWARD CONVERTER: VOLTAGE ON THE MOSFET FOR DIFFERENT VALUES
OF PRIMARY AND RESET WINDING TURNS
T
T/2
T/2
t
NP ⎞
⎛
⎜ 1 + ------- ⎟ V DC
NR ⎠
⎝
NP = NR
A2
VDC
A1
TR
t
TON
NP ⎞
⎛
⎜ 1 + ------- ⎟ V DC > 2V DC
NR ⎠
⎝
A2
NP > NR
VDC
A1
TR
t
TON
NP ⎞
⎛
⎜ 1 + ------- ⎟ V DC < 2V DC
NR ⎠
⎝
A2
NP < NR
VDC
A1
TR
t
TON
DS01207B-page 24
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 22:
FORWARD CONVERTER WAVEFORMS (NP = NR): PRIMARY SIDE
TON
TR
Q1 Command
TON + TR
TON
t (A)
T
VDC – VQ, on
VP
t (B)
IM
t (C)
VR
t (D)
IR = ID1
t (E)
⎛1 + N
------P- ⎞ V DC
⎝
NR ⎠
A2
VDC
A1
t (F)
VQ 1
IQ, mr
IP
t (G)
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(B) = Voltage VP on primary winding NP
(C) = Magnetizing current IM
(D) = Voltage VR on reset winding NR
(E) = Reset winding current, equal to diode D1 current
(F) = Voltage on Q1 MOSFET
(G) = Primary winding current, equal to Q1 MOSFET current
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 25
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
As shown in Figure 22(G) the total current flowing into
the primary has two contributions: the magnetizing current (Equation 67) and the load current (Equation 72)
reflected back into the primary, resulting in
Equation 88.
EQUATION 88:
I P, total
N
------S- ( V – V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
V DC – V Q, on N S N P DC
= ------------------------------- t + ------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------t
LM
NP
LO
The primary wire size can then be computed by first
referring to Figure 22(G), and then replacing the real
current waveform with a pulse having a square shaped
waveform, with the same width and whose amplitude is
the value in the middle of the ramp (IQ, mr). The current
is expressed as a function of known (design
requirements) data.
Note that in these computations, magnetizing current is
neglected since the transformer is designed to make it
about one-tenth of the load reflected current.
Therefore, the input power PI equals Equation 89.
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, WIRE SIZE
As shown in Figure 24(C), the secondary current
equals the inductor current (IO, av) during TON.
Again, as for the primary current, the actual current
waveform is replaced with a current pulse having a
square shaped wave form whose amplitude equals
the mid-ramp inductor current in the up-slope, IO, av,
nom.
Therefore, the secondary average current is equal to
Equation 93.
EQUATION 93:
EQUATION 89:
I S, av = I O, av, nom
P I = V DC, min I Q, mr D max
The output power is shown in Equation 90.
EQUATION 94:
EQUATION 90:
P O = ηP I = ηV DC, min I Q, mr D max
where η is the converter efficiency
Solving Equation 90 results in Equation 91.
EQUATION 91:
PO
1
1
I Q, mr = --- ⎛ --------------------⎞ ------------η ⎝ V DC, min⎠ D max
This is the equivalent current flowing in the primary
wires when TON is at its maximum allowed value. The
rms value is computed in Equation 92.
EQUATION 92:
I Q, rms = I Q, mr D max
The rms value is computed as Equation 94.
PO
D max
1
= --- ⎛ --------------------⎞ ----------------η ⎝ V DC, min⎠ D max
I S, rms = I O, av, nom D max
TRANSFORMER: RESET WINDING, WIRE
SIZE
The reset winding is not involved in carrying any current reflected back into the primary from the secondary.
The only current it has to carry is the magnetizing current, which is plotted in Figure 22(C). The magnetizing
peak current computed in Equation 67 is shown in
Equation 95.
EQUATION 95:
V D ( C, min ) – V Q, on
I M, pk = --------------------------------------------- T ON
LM
The rms value is the peak value multiplied by the
square root of the duty cycle and divided by radix 3, as
shown in Equation 96.
The correct AWG (wire size) can be determined
accordingly.
DS01207B-page 26
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
EQUATION 96:
( V DC, min – V Q, on ) D max
I M, rms = ---------------------------------------------- ----------------- T ON
LM
3
MOSFET
During TOFF, the voltage on the Q switch is equal to
Equation 97.
EQUATION 97:
NP
V Q, off = ⎛⎝ 1 + -------⎞⎠ V DC
NR
At t = TON, a spike due to leakage current appears. It
can safely be estimated to be 30% of the peak value,
as shown in Equation 98.
EQUATION 98:
NP
V Q, off, max = 1.3 ⋅ ⎛ 1 + -------⎞ V DC, max
⎝
NR ⎠
The average current flowing through the switch has
been computed in Equation 92.
DIODES
Table 1 summarizes the values of average current and
voltage the diodes have to cope with.
TABLE 1:
Diode
D1
DIODE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
Configuration
0 - TON
TON - (TON + TR)
(TON + TR) - T
NR
V D, max = – ⎛⎝ 1 + -------⎞⎠ V DC, max
NP
VF
V D, max = – V DC, max
VF
NS
V D, max ≈ – ------- VDC, max
NR
V D, max ≈ 0
NS
V D, max ≈ – ------- VDC, max
NP
VF
VF
D2
D3
Legend: VF is the diode forward voltage.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 27
AN1207
OUTPUT FILTER INDUCTOR
As in all other topologies with an LC low-pass filter at
the output, the inductor is selected to not operate the
system in Discontinuous mode. The inductor is calculated just at the edge between Continuous and Discontinuous mode (i.e., Critical mode), where the inductor
current starts from zero at the beginning of the PWM
period and returns to zero before the PWM period
ends. In this condition, the average current equals 0.5
the peak current (or current ripple), as shown in
Figure 23.
FIGURE 23:
INDUCTOR CURRENT: PEAK CURRENT, RIPPLE CURRENT AMPLITUDE AND
OUTPUT CURRENT AT THE EDGE OF DISCONTINUOUS MODE
I Inductor
IO, PN
IRIPPLE
IO, av, min
TON
In Critical mode, the minimum acceptable output
current (defined by design requirements) is made
coincident with the average current, as shown in
Equation 99.
EQUATION 99:
I O, ripple
I O, av, min = -------------------2
Using Equation 72 to compute IO, ripple, results in
Equation 100.
EQUATION 100:
LO
N
------S- V DC, min – V OUT
NP
= ---------------------------------------------- D max
2F PWM I O, av, min
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The output voltage ripple is mainly due to the capacitor
ESR. The inductor current ripple flowing through it,
determines a voltage drop. Therefore, a capacitor with
an ESR equal to Equation 101 must be selected.
DS01207B-page 28
TON + TR
t
EQUATION 101:
V OUT, ripple
ESR < ----------------------------I O, ripple
where IO, ripple is computed as in Equation 98
The capacitor value itself can then be computed with
Equation 102, which describes the value of the voltage
ripple taking into account all components.
EQUATION 102:
ESL ⋅ FPWM
D max
V ripple = I ripple ⎛ ESR + ------------------- + ------------------------------⎞
⎝
F PWM C
D max ⎠
Neglecting ESL, since it is normally very small (at least
for PWM frequencies less than 400 kHz), results in
Equation 103.
EQUATION 103:
I O, ripple D max
C O = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F PWM ( V OUT, ripple – I O, ripple ESR )
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 24:
FORWARD CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: SECONDARY SIDE
T
TON
TR
t
(A)
t
(B)
IS = I D 2
t
(C)
VB = VD3
t
(D)
t
(E)
VL
t
(F)
IL
t
(G)
ID 3
t
(H)
Q1 Command
TOFF
VS
IO, av
VD2
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(B) = Voltage VS on secondary winding NS
(C) = Secondary winding current, equal to diode D2 current
(D) = Voltage at node B
(E) = Voltage on diode D2
(F) = Voltage on LO inductor
(G) = Current in LO inductor
(H) = Current in diode D3
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 29
AN1207
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD
CONVERTER
Clearly derived from the single-ended topology
(Forward Converter), this circuit has significant
advantages over single-ended forward converters. A
schematic of this topology is shown in Figure 25.
FIGURE 25:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
Q1
NP
VDC
D3
VL
VB
LO
NS
D4
D2
CO
VOUT
VS
D1
Q2
Topology Equations
Referring to the section on Two-Switch Forward
Converters in AN1114 (see “Introduction”), the basic
equations are reviewed first followed by the selection of
circuit components.
Both switches, Q1 and Q2, are simultaneously driven
by a square wave signal with a duty cycle less than 0.5,
as shown in Figure 26.
FIGURE 26:
SIGNAL DRIVING SWITCHES Q1 AND Q2
TR
Q1 Command
Q2 Command
TON
T
DS01207B-page 30
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 ON, Q2 ON (INTERVAL 0 - TON)
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn, as shown in
Figure 27.
FIGURE 27:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL 0 - TON
IPRIMARY
Q1
VL
D3
NP
VDC
VB
LO
NS
D2
VOUT
CO
D4
VS
D1
Q2
Input Circuit Behavior
The transformer is connected between VDC and
ground; the dot end is more positive than the non-dot
end and the magnetizing current is flowing through it.
Both diodes at the primary are reverse-biased and do
not contribute to the operation.
The secondary voltage is equal to Equation 106.
EQUATION 106:
NS
V S = ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on )
NP
The voltage on the primary is equal to Equation 104.
Equation 107 shows the voltage on the inductor.
EQUATION 104:
EQUATION 107:
V P = V DC – 2V Q, on
The magnetizing current in the transformer has a
positive slope increase as shown in Figure 30(C):
EQUATION 105:
( V DC – 2V Q, on )
I M ( t ) = --------------------------------------- t
LM
The total current in the primary is this magnetizing
current plus the secondary current reflected by the
transformer back to the primary.
Output Circuit Behavior
Similar to the primary, the secondary winding experiences a voltage that is higher at the dot end compared
to the non-dot end. Therefore, diode D3 is forwardbiased and conducting the current to the inductor, while
diode D4 is reversed-biased.
NS
V L = ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
NP
As shown in Equation 108, the current in the inductor
has a linearly growing behavior (see also
Figure 31(E)).
EQUATION 108:
N
------S- ( V DC – 2V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
NP
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
At this point, the total current in the primary windings
can be computed as the sum of the magnetizing current and the secondary current reflected back into the
primary (see Figure 30(F)), as shown in Equation 109.
EQUATION 109:
N
------S- ( V – 2V Q, on ) – V D, on – V OUT
( V DC – 2V Q, on ) N S N P DC
I P, total ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + --------------------------------------- + ------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LM
NP
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 31
AN1207
Q1 OFF Q2 OFF
(INTERVAL TON TO (TON + TR))
When both switches turn off, the magnetizing current in
NP reverses all the voltages in the system. At the primary, the non-dot end part of the inductor becomes
more positive than the dot end (see Figure 28). Both
diodes are forward-biased, which provides a path for
the leakage current, from the non-dot end of the primary, through D2 into the positive of VDC out of its negative wire, through diode D1, and back again to the
transformer.
FIGURE 28:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL TON - (TON + TR)
VL
Q1
D3
NP
VDC
LO
NS
D4
VP
D2
VB
CO
VOUT
VS
D1
Q2
The voltage on the primary is equal to Equation 110.
EQUATION 110:
V P, off = – ( V DC + 2V D, on )
becomes reverse-biased. The inductor current has its
path through diode D4 and into the load and the output
capacitor.
Equation 112 shows the secondary voltage.
EQUATION 112:
The magnetizing current can be expressed as
Equation 111.
EQUATION 111:
– ( V DC + 2V D, on )
I M ( t ) = ------------------------------------------- t
LM
The magnetizing current reaches zero (that is, all the
energy stored into the transformer primary during TON
has been delivered back to the VDC input) at time
TON + TR, being (TON + TR) < T.
Output Circuit Behavior
Because of the change in polarity of the voltages due
to the magnetizing current, the polarity of the induced
secondary voltage is such that the non-dot end of the
winding is more positive than the dot end. In the meanwhile, the voltage on the output inductor changes polarity as well, and its left side tries to go very negative, but
is clamped to a diode voltage drop below ground by
diode D4, which is forward-biased. D3 on the contrary
DS01207B-page 32
NS
V S = – ------- ( V DC + 2V D, on )
NP
Equation 113 shows the inductor voltage.
EQUATION 113:
V L = – V OUT – V D, on
Equation 114 shows the current.
EQUATION 114:
– ( V OUT + V D, on )
I L ( t ) = ------------------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 OFF Q2 OFF (INTERVAL (TON + TR) TO T)
As seen previously from (TON + TR) to T, there is no
more energy in the transformer primary, the magnetizing current is zero and consequently the two diodes D1
and D2 are not conducting any more, as they are
reverse-biased.
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 29. Voltage VP and VS are both zero and voltage
on the switch will be less than VDC. Nothing changes at
the secondary.
FIGURE 29:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL (TON + TR) - T
VL
Q1
D3
NP
VDC
LO
NS
D4
VP
D2
VB
VOUT
CO
VS
D1
Q2
Design Equations and Component
Selection
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
EQUATION 117:
D max, theoretical = 0.5
The input/output relationship is shown in Equation 115,
and is obtained by equating Equation 108 with
Equation 114, where t = TON and t = TOFF, respectively.
Of course the real duty cycle will be somewhat smaller
than the maximum, theoretical value, to take into
account tolerances in the computations.
EQUATION 115:
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY
V OUT
NS
= ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on )D – V D, on
NP
Neglecting VD and VQ, the duty cycle can be
determined, as shown in Equation 116.
The number of primary turns is determined from the
Faraday equation shown in Equation 118, which results
in Equation 119.
EQUATION 118:
V P T ON
ΔB = -------------------N P A core
EQUATION 116:
NS
V OUT = ------- V DC D
NP
The maximum theoretical duty cycle (Equation 117)
can be obtained equating the two magnetizing currents
(Equation 105 and Equation 111), considering that TR
can be at maximum TR = TOFF.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
EQUATION 119:
( V DC, min – 2V Q, on )D max
N P = --------------------------------------------------------------F PWM A core ΔB
DS01207B-page 33
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, WIRE SIZE
The current flowing through the transformer can be
computed replacing the current in Figure 30(F), with an
equivalent waveform having a constant amplitude (IP,
mr), corresponding to the mid-ramp value.
By referring to Figure 31(C), the current flowing into the
secondary winding can be determined, and the ramp
on a step current waveform can be approximated with
a constant amplitude signal, being the amplitude IO, av,
nom. Based on these, the corresponding rms value is
equal to Equation 125.
Considering the relationship of Equation 120 (between
the input power) and Equation 121 (the output power),
this results in Equation 122. Therefore, the rms value is
then equal to Equation 123.
EQUATION 125:
I SECONDARY, rms = I O, ar, nom D max
EQUATION 120:
P O = ηP I
EQUATION 121:
P I = V DC, min I P, mr D max
MOSFET
The maximum voltage the switches must be able to
withstand during TOFF, is shown in Equation 126.
EQUATION 126:
V Q, max ≈ V DC, max
EQUATION 122:
PO
I P, mr = -------------------------------------ηV DC, min D max
EQUATION 123:
I P, rms = I P, mr D max
The maximum current during TON is shown in
Equation 127, which is the same current flowing into
the transformer.
EQUATION 127:
PO
I P, mr = -------------------------------------ηV DC, min D max
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY
The number of turns are determined by Equation 115
and Equation 119 and results in Equation 124.
EQUATION 124:
V OUT
N S = -----------------------------------F PWM A core ΔB
DS01207B-page 34
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 30:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: PRIMARY SIDE
TR
Q1 Command
Q2 Command
t
(A)
VP
t
(B)
IM
t
(C)
V Q 1, V Q 2
t
(D)
V D 1, V D 2
t
(E)
t
(F)
TON
T
VDC
IP, mr
IP
(A) = Command signal on Q1 and Q2 MOSFET gates
(B) = Voltage VP on primary winding NP
(C) = Magnetizing current IM
(D) = Voltage on Q1 and Q2 MOSFETS
(E) = Voltage on diodes D1 and D2
(F) = Total primary current IP (magnetizing current and load current reflected back to the primary side of the
transformer)
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 35
AN1207
FIGURE 31:
TWO-SWITCH FORWARD CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: SECONDARY SIDE
TR
Q1 Command
Q2 Command
t
(A)
VS
t
(B)
IS
t
(C)
VL
t
(D)
t
(E)
ID 3
t
(F)
VD 4
t
(G)
ID 4
t
(H)
TON
TON + TR
IO, av, nom
IL
IO, av, nom
T
(A) = Command signal on Q1 and Q2 MOSFET gates
(B) = Voltage VS on secondary winding NS
(C) = Current flowing into the secondary winding NS
(D) = Voltage on inductor LO
(E) = Current in inductor LO
(F) = Current flowing in diode D3
(G) = Voltage on diode D4
(H) = Current in diode D4
DS01207B-page 36
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
DIODES
Table 2 provides calculations for determining diode
voltage.
TABLE 2:
Configuration
Diode
0 - TON
D1
D2
D3
D4
DIODE VOLTAGE
TON -> (TON + TR)
(TON + TR) -> T
V R = – V DC, max + V Q, on
VF
– V DC, max
V R = -----------------------2
V R = – V DC, max + V Q, on
VF
– V DC, max
V R = -----------------------2
VF
NS
V R = ------- (V DC, max + 2V D,on ) + V D, on
NP
NS
V R = ------- ( V DC, max – 2V Q,on ) + V D, on
NP
VF
≅ VF
VF
Legend: VF is the diode forward voltage.
Table 3 provides calculations for determining average
diode current.
TABLE 3:
Diode
D1
D2
D3
D4
DIODE CURRENT
Configuration
0 - TON
TON -> (TON + TR)
(TON + TR) -> T
0
PO
------------------------------------ηV DC, min D max
0
0
PO
------------------------------------ηV DC, min D max
0
I O, av, nom
0
0
0
I O, av, nom
I O, av, nom
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 37
AN1207
OUTPUT INDUCTANCE
The output inductor is computed so that the output
inductor is at the edge of the Discontinuous mode when
the output current is the minimum required (IO, av, min).
Using the same approach used for the Forward Converter (see Figure 26 and Equations 99 and 100), from
Equation 108 and Equation 128 (neglecting the voltage
drops on the MOSFETS and diodes) results in
Equation 129.
EQUATION 128:
I O, ripple
I O, av, min = -------------------2
EQUATION 129:
LO
NS
⎛ ------V
–V ⎞ D
⎝ N P DC, min O⎠ max
= ---------------------------------------------------------2F PWM I O, av, min
OUTPUT CAPACITANCE
The capacitance should present the lowest possible
impedance at the frequency of the current ripple, to
achieve the lowest output voltage ripple.
The voltage ripple is determined by the ESR of the output capacitor and by the voltage drop on CO due to the
current flowing through it (see Equation 130).
EQUATION 130:
1
D
V OUT, ripple = ESR ⋅ I O, ripple + ------- I O, ripple --------------CO
F PWM
The output capacitor value can be determined from
Equation 131.
DS01207B-page 38
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER
The waveforms (two pulses, with adjustable width and
a 180° phase delay) used to drive the gates of the two
Q transistors are represented in Figure 33. Some margin is needed after the falling edge of one pulse before
the rising edge of the other. These time intervals are
called TR. If not implemented, a short circuit exists and
the switches will be destroyed by the very high current
flowing through the path from VDC to ground. Initially,
CB is replaced with a short circuit.
Design Equations
Figure 32 presents the schematic of a Half-Bridge
Converter. Please refer to the section on Half-Bridge
Converters in AN1114 (see “Introduction”) for a
detailed description of the operation of the system.
FIGURE 32:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
D1
VDC/2
C1
NP
Q1
D3
NS
VL
VB
LO
VDC
NS
D4
CO
RO
VOUT
CB
VDC/2
C2
Q2
D2
FIGURE 33:
Q1 AND Q2 COMMAND SIGNALS
TR
Signal
Driving Q1
TR
T1ON
Signal
Driving Q2
T2ON
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 39
AN1207
Q1 ON, Q2 OFF
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 34.
FIGURE 34:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: Q1 ON, Q2 OFF
VL
D1
VDC/2
C1
NP
Q1
D3
NS
VB
LO
VDC
VP
CO
D4
RO
VOUT
VS
VDC/2
C2
Q2
D2
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
The voltage on capacitor C1 develops a voltage on the
primary circuit where the dot end is more positive than
the non-dot end.
Because of the voltage polarity on the primary, the dotend edge of the secondary is more positive than the
non-dot end. Diode D4 is then reverse-biased and D3
is forward-biased.
Equation 132 shows the voltage at the primary.
Equation 134 shows the voltage at the secondary.
EQUATION 132:
VP
V DC
= ⎛ ---------- – V Q1, on⎞
⎝ 2
⎠
EQUATION 134:
N S V DC
V S = ------- ⎛⎝ ---------- – V Q1, on⎞⎠
NP 2
Equation 133 shows the magnetizing current.
EQUATION 133:
V DC
---------V
2 Q1, on
I M ( t ) = ---------------------------- t
LM
Equation 135 shows the voltage on the inductor.
EQUATION 135:
N S V DC
V L = ------- ⎛ ---------- – V Q1, on⎞ – V D3, on – V OUT > 0
⎠
NP ⎝ 2
Equation 137 shows the current.
EQUATION 136:
N V DC
- – V Q1, on⎞ – V D3, on – V OUT
------S- ⎛ --------⎠
NP ⎝ 2
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ t
LO
DS01207B-page 40
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 OFF, Q2 ON
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 35.
FIGURE 35:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: Q1 OFF, Q2 ON
VL
D1
VDC/2
C1
NP
Q1
D3
NS
VB
LO
VDC
D4
CO
RO
VOUT
VS
VDC/2
C2
Q2
D2
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
In this instance, the dot end of the primary winding has
a voltage that is more negative than the non-dot end.
As with the primary, the dot end of the secondary
winding has a voltage more negative than the nondot end. As a consequence, D3 in open and D4 is
forward-biased.
Equation 137 shows the primary winding voltage.
EQUATION 137:
V DC
V P = – ---------- + V Q, on
2
Equation 138 shows the magnetizing current.
EQUATION 138:
V DC
– ---------- + V Q, on
2
I M ( t ) = ------------------------------------ t
LM
Equation 139 shows the secondary voltage.
EQUATION 139:
N S V DC
V S = ------- ⎛ – ---------- + V Q, on⎞
⎠
NP ⎝ 2
Equation 140 shows the inductor voltage.
EQUATION 140:
N S V DC
V L = ------- ⎛⎝ ---------- – V Q, on⎞⎠ – V D, on – V OUT
NP 2
Equation 141 shows the current.
EQUATION 141:
N V DC
- – V Q, on⎞ – V D, on – V OUT
------S- ⎛ --------⎠
NP ⎝ 2
I L ( t ) = I L ( T ON ) + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 41
AN1207
Q1 OFF, Q2 OFF (PERIOD TR)
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 36.
FIGURE 36:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: Q1 OFF, Q2 OFF
VL
D1
VDC/2
NP
Q1
C1
D3
NS
VB
LO
VDC
CO
D4
RO
VOUT
VS
VDC/2
Q2
C2
D2
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
In this instance, the current path in the primary side
when Q1 turns off (Figure 37) and when Q2 turns off
(Figure 38).
When both switches are off, the voltage on the two
secondary windings are such that both D1 and D2 are
forward-biased and are conducting. The current is split
equally between them, so that each of them is
conducing one half of the current flowing into the
inductor. The resulting current waveforms are shown in
Figure 40.
FIGURE 37:
HALF-BRIDGE
CONVERTER: CURRENT
PATH IN THE PRIMARY SIDE
WHEN Q1 TURNS OFF
Equation 142 shows the inductor voltage.
EQUATION 142:
VDC/2
C1
Q1
D5
NP
V L = – V OUT
VDC
Equation 143 shows the current flowing through it.
<0
VDC/2
C2
FIGURE 38:
Q2
D6
EQUATION 143:
– V OUT
I L ( t ) = ----------------- t
LO
HALF-BRIDGE
CONVERTER: CURRENT
PATH IN THE PRIMARY SIDE
WHEN Q2 TURNS OFF
D5
VDC/2
C1
NP
Q1
VDC
>0
VDC/2
C2
DS01207B-page 42
Q2
D6
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 39:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: PRIMARY SIDE
Q1
Command
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
t
(D)
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
Q2
Command
VDC/2
VP
-VDC/2
VDC
VDC/2
VQ 1
IP, mr
IQ 1
VDC
VDC/2
VQ 2
IP, mr
IQ 2
TON
TON
TR
TR
T
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(F) = Current flowing in Q1 MOSFET
(B) = Command signal on Q2 MOSFET gate
(G) = Voltage on Q2 MOSFET
(C) = Voltage VP on primary winding NP
(H) = Current flowing in Q2 MOSFET
(D) = Voltage on Q1 MOSFET
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 43
AN1207
FIGURE 40:
HALF-BRIDGE CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: SECONDARY SIDE
t
Q1 Command
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
VD 3
t
(D)
ID 3
t
(E)
VD 4
t
(F)
ID 4
t
(G)
Q2 Command
NP/NS VDC/2
VS
-NS/NP VDC/2
NS/NP VDC
VL
t
(H)
IO, av, nom
IL
t
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(B) = Command signal on Q2 MOSFET gate
(C) = Voltage VS on secondary winding NS
(D) = Voltage on diode D3
(E) = Current flowing in diode D3
DS01207B-page 44
(I)
(F) = Voltage on diode D4
(G) = Current flowing in diode D4
(H) = Voltage on inductor LO
(I) = Current in inductor LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Design Equations and Component
Selection
Equation 147 shows the input power.
EQUATION 147:
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
At the Steady state, the increase in inductor current
during TON must equal its decrease during TR (neglecting the forward drop on the diode), as shown in
Equation 144.
V DC
P I = ---------- I P, mr 2D
2
Equation 148 shows the output power.
EQUATION 148:
EQUATION 144:
P O = ηP I
NS
V OUT = ------- V DC D
NP
T ON
T
where η is the efficiency
T
2
where D = ---------- , and ( T ON + T R ) = ---
Consequently, knowing that there are two pulses in the
PWM period, the maximum theoretical duty cycle is
Dmax, theoretical = 0.5. Of course, to avoid the shootthrough in the two switches, the maximum duty cycle
corresponding to the minimum input voltage, will be
less.
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY
As soon as the transformer core has been defined, the
primary turns number can be computed from Faraday’s
law as shown in Equation 145, resulting in
Equation 146.
these
two
equations
results
in
EQUATION 149:
PO
I P, mr = -------------------------------------ηV DC, min D max
Equation 150 shows the rms value.
EQUATION 150:
I P, rms = I P, mr D max
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, NUMBER OF
TURNS, WIRE SIZE
EQUATION 145:
V P T ON
ΔB = -------------------N P A core
The secondary turns number shown in Equation 151,
can be obtained from Equation 144 and Equation 146.
EQUATION 151:
EQUATION 146:
NP
Operating on
Equation 149.
V DC, min D max
= --------------------------------------2F PWM A core ΔB
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
Current flowing in the primary windings is plotted in
Figure 39(E and G). It is the sum of the magnetizing
current flowing into the primary windings and the secondary load current reflected back by the transformer
turn ratio.
To make computations simpler, the real current waveforms can be replaced with the mid-ramp value (IP, mr)
and determine its value considering the input (PI) and
output (PO) power.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
V OUT
N S = --------------------------------------2F PWM A core ΔB
The average output current, shown as IO, av, nom in
Figure 40(I), is the average output current the converter is designed for. The rms secondary current (IS)
results in Equation 152.
EQUATION 152:
I S, rms = I O, av, nom D max
DS01207B-page 45
AN1207
SWITCHES
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
Referring to section on Half-Bridge Converters in
AN1114 (see “Introduction”), one of the main
advantages of the Half-Bridge Converter topology is
that the switches must withstand a maximum voltage
that is VDC, compared to 2 VDC as in push-pull
topologies. During TON and TR, the Q1 and Q2 switches
are subject to a maximum voltage of VQ, max = VDC,
max.
The output voltage ripple is mainly due to the ESR,
which results in Equation 155.
EQUATION 155:
1
D
V OUT, ripple = ESR ⋅ I O, ripple + ------- I O, ripple --------------CO
F PWM
The maximum current flowing through the switches has
already been computed in Equation 150.
As previously seen in other topologies, the output
capacitor value can be determined from the relation
shown in Equation 156.
OUTPUT INDUCTANCE
EQUATION 156:
The inductor is selected in such a way as to prevent the
output inductor current from becoming discontinuous.
The computations are performed at the edge between
continuous and discontinuous operation, when the
output starts from zero at the beginning of the TON
period and goes back to zero at the end of the TR
period. In other words, the inductor current peak (which
is also the current ripple, DI) is twice the output average
current (see Equation 153).
EQUATION 153:
I O, ripple = 2I O, a ( v, min )
N V DC, min
------S- -------------------– V OUT
NP
2
= ------------------------------------------------ T ON
LO
I O, ripple D max
C O = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F PWM ( V OUT, ripple – I O, ripple ESR )
CAPACITOR CB
Capacitor CB (see Figure 32) is used to block the DC
component of the current flowing into the transformer to
avoid core saturation. Small differences between C1
and C2 create an unbalance of the voltage at the point
between them and causes the core to walk along the
hysteresis loop onto saturation.
The presence of the small capacitor causes a droop in
the primary voltage. The voltage during TON will decay
almost linearly with time.
Equation 154 shows the results.
Assuming ΔVD is the maximum acceptable droop
voltage, which results in Equation 157.
EQUATION 154:
EQUATION 157:
LO
N V DC, min
------S- -------------------- – V OUT
2
NP
= ------------------------------------------------ D max
2F PWM I O, av, min
DS01207B-page 46
I P, mr
C B > ------------ T ON
ΔV D
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER
The waveforms (two pulses, with adjustable width and
with a 180° phase delay) used to drive the gates of the
two Q transistors are shown in Figure 42. T is the
period of the waveform, with two pulses in T, one on Q1
and the second one on Q2. This means that the duty
cycle must be less than 0.5 to prevent overlap of the
two pulses. Some margin is needed after the falling
edge of one pulse before the rising edge of the other.
These time intervals are called TR.
The Push-Pull Converter uses a transformer to isolate
the input from the output circuit.
Topology Equations
Figure 41 shows the schematic of a Push-Pull
Converter. Refer to AN1114 (see “Introduction”) for a
detailed description of the system operation.
FIGURE 41:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
VL
D2
NP
VP1
VS1
Q1
FIGURE 42:
CO
NS
VP2
VDC
LO
NS
NP
VDC
VA
RO
VOUT
D1
VS2
Q2
SIGNALS DRIVING Q1 AND Q2 MOSFET GATES
TR
Signal
Driving Q1
TR
T1ON
Signal
Driving Q2
T2ON
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 47
AN1207
Q1 ON, Q2 OFF
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 43.
FIGURE 43:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER: Q1 ON, Q2 OFF
VL
D2
NP
VP1
VS1
Q1
CO
NS
VP2
VDC
LO
NS
NP
VDC
VA
VS2
RO
VOUT
D1
Q2
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
The input voltage VDC gives place to a voltage on the
primary winding where the non-dot ends are more
positive than the dot-ends.
Because of the voltage polarity on the primary, the dot
ends of the secondary is more negative that the nondot end. Diode D2 is then reverse-biased and D1 is
forward-biased.
Equation 158 shows the voltage at the primary.
EQUATION 158:
V P = – ( V DC – V Q1, on )
Equation 161 shows the voltage at the secondary.
EQUATION 161:
NS
V S = – ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on )
NP
This same voltage is present on the lower primary
winding (supposing NP1 = NP2), so that the total
voltage on Q2 switch is equal to Equation 159.
Equation 162 shows the voltage on the inductor.
EQUATION 159:
EQUATION 162:
V Q2, off = 2V DC – V Q1, on
NS
V L = ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on ) – V D1, on – V OUT > 0
NP
Equation 160 shows the magnetizing current.
Equation 163 shows the current.
EQUATION 160:
EQUATION 163:
– V DC + V Q, on
I M ( t ) = ----------------------------------- t
LM
DS01207B-page 48
N
------S- ( V DC – V Q1, on ) – V D1, on – V OUT
NP
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 OFF, Q2 ON
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 44.
FIGURE 44:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER: Q1 OFF, Q2 ON
VL
D2
NP
VP1
NP
Q1
LO
NS
VS1
CO
NS
VP2
VDC
VDC
VB
VS2
RO
VOUT
D1
Q2
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
In this instance, the dot end of the primary windings has
a voltage more positive than the non-dot end.
As with the primary, the dot end of the secondary
windings has a voltage more positive than the nondot end. As a consequence, D1 is open and D2 is
forward-biased.
Equation 164 shows the primary winding voltage.
EQUATION 164:
V P = V DC – V Q2, on
Equation 165 shows the magnetizing current.
EQUATION 165:
V DC – V Q, on
I M ( t ) = ------------------------------- t
LM
Equation 166 shows the secondary voltage.
EQUATION 166:
NS
V S = ------- ( V DC – V Q2, on )
NP
Equation 167 shows the inductor voltage.
EQUATION 167:
NS
V L = ------- ( V DC – V Q2, on ) – V D2, on – V OUT > 0
NP
Equation 168 shows the current.
EQUATION 168:
N
------S- ( V DC – V Q2, on ) – V D2, on – V OUT
NP
I L ( t ) = I L ( 0 ) + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 49
AN1207
Q1 OFF, Q2 OFF (PERIOD TR)
In this configuration, the circuit is redrawn as shown in
Figure 45.
FIGURE 45:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER: Q1 OFF, Q2 OFF
VL
D2
NP
VP1
NP
VP2
VDC
VDC
Q1
VA
LO
NS
VS1
CO
NS
VS2
RO
VOUT
D1
Q2
Input Circuit Behavior
Equation 169 shows the voltage on each switch.
Design Equations and Component
Selection
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
EQUATION 169:
V Q = V DC
Output Circuit Behavior
When both switches are off, since the current in the
inductor continues to flow in the same direction as
before, the voltage on the two secondary windings are
such that: Vs2 = -Vs1, and D1 and D2 are forwardbiased and are conducting. They split the current
equally, so that each of them is conducting one half of
the current flowing into the inductor. The resulting current waveforms are plotted in Figure 47(G and H) for
the two secondary windings currents.
Equation 170 shows the inductor voltage.
EQUATION 170:
V L = – V OUT – V D, on + V S1
where VS1 is IL times the resistance of the windings
(almost zero).
Based on Equation 170, the current flowing through the
inductor LO is equal to Equation 171.
EQUATION 171:
– V OUT – V D, on
I L ( t ) = I L ( t ) + --------------------------------------- t
LO
At the Steady state, the increase in inductor current
during TON must equal its decrease during TR. Using
Equation 168 and Equation 171 (neglecting the forward drop on the diode) and since (TON + TR) = T/2,
results in Equation 172.
EQUATION 172:
NS
V OUT = 2 ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on )D
NP
T ON
where D = ---------T
Consequently, knowing there are two pulses in the
PWM period, the maximum theoretical duty cycle can
be Dmax = 0.5.
Starting from the input/output relationship shown in
Equation 173, the feedback control loop keeps the output voltage VOUT constant against changes in the input
voltage VDC, and if VDC decreases, TON will increase to
compensate.
EQUATION 173:
NS
T ON
V OUT = 2 ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on ) ---------NP
T
Therefore, for the system design, a maximum duty
cycle (Dmax) can be defined that corresponds to the
minimum input voltage (VDC, min) and if less than the
maximum, theoretical is equal to Equation 174.
EQUATION 174:
N P V OUT
D max = ------------------------------2N S V DC, min
DS01207B-page 50
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, NUMBER OF
TURNS
As clearly stated in the Push-Pull Converter section in
AN1114 (see “Introduction”), the operating point of
the core transformer moves between points that are in
the first and third quadrant of the hysteresis loop.
Once the maximum allowable ΔB has been defined
(based on PWM frequency and geometrical dimensions of the core and bobbins), using the Faraday
equation shown in Equation 158 and Equation 175,
results in the number of primary turns, as shown in
Equation 176.
EQUATION 175:
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
Current flowing in the primary windings and into the
switches are plotted in Figure 46(G and H).
To simplify computations, the real current waveforms
can be replaced with the mid-ramp value (IP, mr) and
determine its value considering the input (PI) and
output (PO) power.
The input power is shown in Equation 177.
EQUATION 177:
P I = V D ( C, min ) I P, mr 2D max
where D is the duty cycle
V P T ON
ΔB = -------------------N P A core
The output power is shown in Equation 178.
EQUATION 178:
P O = ηP I
EQUATION 176:
NP
( V DC, min – V Q, on )
= ---------------------------------------------- D max
A core F PWM ΔB
where η is the efficiency
Operating on
Equation 179.
these
two
equations
results
in
EQUATION 179:
PO
I P, mr = ----------------------------------------2ηV DC, min D max
The rms value is shown in Equation 180.
EQUATION 180:
I P, rms = I P, mr D max
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 51
AN1207
FIGURE 46:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: PRIMARY SIDE
Q1 Command
t
(A)
Q2 Command
t
(B)
VP1
t
(C)
VP2
t
(D)
VQ1
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
t
(H)
2VDC
VDC
VQ2
IP, mr
IQ1
IP, mr
IQ2
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(E) = Voltage on Q1 MOSFET
(B) = Command signal on Q2 MOSFET gate
(F) = Voltage on Q2 MOSFET
(C) = Voltage VP1 on primary winding NP (upper half)
(G) = Current flowing in Q1 MOSFET
(D) = Voltage VP2 on primary winding NP (lower half)
(H) = Current flowing in Q2 MOSFET
DS01207B-page 52
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, NUMBER OF
TURNS
MOSFETS
Once the primary number of turns has been defined,
NS can be determined using Equation 173 and
Equation 176, as shown in Equation 181.
In Equation 159 (repeated in Equation 184) the voltage
the switch must be able to withstand (considering the
maximum input voltage) twice the maximum input
voltage.
EQUATION 181:
EQUATION 184:
V OUT
8
N S = --------------------------------------- ⋅ 10
2A core F PWM ΔB
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, WIRE SIZE
As previously seen, the secondary current waveform is
quite complex (refer to Figure 47(G and H). However,
to simplify computations, a contribution to the current
only during TON is considered. The average current,
shown as IO, av, nom, is the average output current the
converter is designed for. The rms secondary current
(IS) results in Equation 182.
EQUATION 182:
I S, rms = I O, av, nom D max
DIODES
During TON (Q1 ON, Q2 OFF), diode D2 is reversebiased. The maximum voltage it can tolerate is equal to
Equation 183.
V Q2, off = 2V DC, max – V Q1, on
The maximum voltage the switches have to withstand
must also take into account the spike that is generated
by leakage inductance on the falling edges of the
switch control signal. The spike is generally estimated
to be 30% higher than the voltage on the switch. Therefore, at the end of the TON time interval, the maximum
voltage is equal to Equation 185.
EQUATION 185:
V Q, max ≈ 2.6V DC, max
The maximum current flowing through the switches has
been already computed in Equation 179.
The maximum VQ, max and IP, mr are now obtained.
Therefore, almost all that is needed to make the best
device choice is known. All that remains is to add the
analysis of the power dissipated in the switch, which
are switching and DC losses.
EQUATION 183:
NS
V R, D2 = – 2 ------- ( V DC, max – V Q1, on ) + V D1
NP
The average current flowing in D1 is the same current
that is flowing into the inductor, and its value is IO, av,
nom.
During the other TON period (Q1 OFF, Q2 ON), things
are reversed; now D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is
conducting. The same values as before apply.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 53
AN1207
FIGURE 47:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER WAVEFORMS: SECONDARY SIDE
Q1 Command
t
(A)
Q2 Command
t
(B)
ID 1
t
(C)
ID 2
t
(D)
VL
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
t
(H)
IO, av, nom
IL
IO, av, nom/2
IS
(upper)
IO, av, nom/2
IS
(lower)
(A) = Command signal on Q1 MOSFET gate
(E) = Voltage on inductor LO
(B) = Command signal on Q2 MOSFET gate
(F) = Current in inductor LO
(C) = Current flowing in diode D1
(G) = Current flowing in secondary winding (upper half)
(D) = Current flowing in diode D2
(H) = Current flowing in secondary winding (lower half)
DS01207B-page 54
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Switching Losses
Figure 48 plots the current and voltage in the switch at
the switching instance. When the switch is turned on,
the voltage falls rapidly, while the current has a smooth
up-slope since current cannot change abruptly in an
inductor. As seen in Figure 48, power dissipation is
zero.
Things are completely different when the switch is
turned off. Both the voltage and the current have a
smooth slope (an up-slope the former, a down-slope
the latter), and there is a significant overlap and some
non-zero power is dissipated.
FIGURE 48:
PUSH-PULL CONVERTER: SWITCHES, CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
V
2VDC
IP, mr
I
TSW
TSW
Its value can be easily computed using Equation 186.
EQUATION 186:
2V DC, max T SW
I P, mr T SW
T SW
P Q, ac, max = I P, mr ----------------------------------- + 2V DC, max ----------------------- = 2I P, mr V DC, max ---------2T
2T
T
where TSW equals the rise and fall times
The DC losses can then be computed, as shown in
Equation 187.
EQUATION 187:
P Q, dc, max = I P, mr V Q, on D max
The total power dissipated in the switch is then equal to
Equation 188.
EQUATION 188:
T SW
P Q, total, max = P Q, ac + P Q, dc = 2I P, mr V DC, max ---------- + I P, mr V Q, on D max
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 55
AN1207
OUTPUT INDUCTOR
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The inductor is selected in such a way as to prevent the
output inductor current from becoming discontinuous.
The computations are performed at the edge between
continuous and discontinuous operation, meaning
when the output current starts from zero at the beginning of the TON period and goes back to zero at the end
of the TR period. In other words, the inductor current
peak, which is also the current ripple DL, is twice the
output average current, as shown in Equation 189.
As with the Buck Converter design, the output voltage
ripple is mainly due to the ESR, resulting in
Equation 191.
EQUATION 189:
I O, ripple = 2I O, av, min
N
------S- ( V D ( C, min ) – V OUT )
NP
= --------------------------------------------------------- T ON
LO
Solving Equation 189 results in Equation 190.
EQUATION 191:
V OUT, ripple = ESR ⋅ I O, ripple
As seen in previous topologies, the output capacitor
value can be determined from the relationship shown in
Equation 192.
EQUATION 192:
I O, ripple D max
C O = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F PWM ( V OUT, ripple – I O, ripple ESR )
EQUATION 190:
LO
N
------S- V DC, min – V OUT
NP
= ------------------------------------------------ D max
2F PWM I O, av, min
DS01207B-page 56
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER
A Full-Bridge Converter, which is capable of managing
higher power levels, requires some additional
components compared to the Half-Bridge Converter.
Topology Equations
The basic Full-Bridge Converter topology is shown in
Figure 49. Transistors Q1, Q4 and Q2, Q3 are always
operated together, driven by the waveform shown in
Figure 50. Care must be taken so that Q1, Q2 or Q3,
Q4 are not ON at the same time; otherwise, a low
impedance path is created from VDC to ground. This
imposes a maximum value on the TON interval as is
discussed in a later section.
FIGURE 49:
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
D1
Q1
VQ 1
VD 5
D3
VQ3
Q3
CI
NP NS
VS1
VP
VDC
CO
VS2
Q2
VQ2
FIGURE 50:
D2
VQ 4
Q4
D4
LO
D5
D6
VOUT
VD 6
NS
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER WAVEFORM
TT
TOFF
TON
t
TON
TOFF
t
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 57
AN1207
Q2 ON, Q3 ON; Q1 OFF, Q4 OFF
(INTERVAL 0-TON)
As shown in Figure 51, current flows through Q3, the
transformer primary and Q2 back to the input. The dot
end of the transformer is more positive than the non-dot
end.
FIGURE 51:
FULL-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY: Q2 AND Q3 ON
D1
Q1
VQ 1
VDC
VD 5
D3
VQ 3
Q3
NP NS
CI
VS1
VP
CO
D6
VS2
Q2
VQ 2
D2
Q4
D4
LO
D5
VOUT
VD 6
NS
VQ 4
Input Circuit Behavior
The voltage on the primary is shown in Equation 193.
The secondary voltage can be computed as shown in
Equation 195.
EQUATION 195:
EQUATION 193:
V P = V DC – V Q2, on – V Q3, on = V DC – 2V Q, on
The magnetizing current increases according to the law
shown in Equation 194.
NS
NS
V S1 = ------- V P = ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on )
NP
NP
Equation 196 shows the current flowing into the
inductor.
EQUATION 196:
EQUATION 194:
VP
V DC – 2V Q, on
i M ( t ) = ------ t = ---------------------------------- t
LP
LP
Output Circuit Behavior
N
------S- V DC – V O
NP
i L ( t ) = i L ( 0 ) + ------------------------------- t
LO
The voltage on the output capacitor LO is shown in
Equation 197.
As for the primary winding, the dot ends of the two secondary windings are more positive that the two non-dot
ends. This implies that diode D5 is conducting while
diode D6 is not conducting.
EQUATION 197:
NS
NS
V L = V S1 – V D5, on – V O = ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on ) – V D5, on – V O ≈ ------- V DC – V O > 0
NP
NP
DS01207B-page 58
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 ON, Q4 ON; Q2 OFF, Q3 OFF
(INTERVAL 0-TON)
As shown in Figure 52, current flows through Q1, the
transformer, and Q4 back to the input. The dot end of
the transformer is now more negative than the non-dot
end.
FIGURE 52:
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: Q1 AND Q4 ON
VQ 1
VDC
Q1
D1
VD5
D3
VQ3
Q3
CI
NP NS
VS1
VP
CO
VS2
Q2
VQ2
D2
Q4
D4
LO
D5
D6
VOUT
VD 6
NS
VQ 4
Input Circuit Behavior
Output Circuit Behavior
The primary voltage is shown in Equation 198.
In this instance, as at the primary, the dot ends are
more negative than the non-dot ends, which results in
Equation 200.
EQUATION 198:
V P = – V DC + V Q1, on + V Q4, on = – V DC + 2V Q, on
The magnetizing current is shown in Equation 199.
EQUATION 199:
– V DC + 2V Q, on
VP
i M ( t ) = ------ t = -------------------------------------- t
LP
LP
EQUATION 200:
NS
NS
V S2 = ------- V P = – ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on )
NP
NP
The output inductor voltage is shown in Equation 201.
EQUATION 201:
NS
V L = ------- ( V DC – 2V Q, on ) – V D6, on – V O
NP
The current flowing
Equation 202.
through
it
is
shown
in
EQUATION 202:
N
------S- V DC – V O
NP
i L ( t ) = i L ( 0 ) + ------------------------------- t
LO
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 59
AN1207
Q2 AND Q3 HAVE JUST SWITCHED OFF; Q1
AND Q4 ARE OFF
The voltage on the inductor is shown in Equation 204.
EQUATION 204:
When the switches are open, the magnetizing current
continues to flow, reversing all voltages. At the primary,
the dot end becomes more negative than the non-dot
end. The magnetizing current flows through D4, the
transformer, and D1 as seen in Figure 53.
V L = – V S2 – V O – V D6, on ≈ – V O – V D6, on
The voltage on the primary is zero, and as shown in
Equation 203 the voltage on the secondary is:
Since VS2 is very low, its magnitude is given by the voltage drop on the secondary winding resistance due to
one half of the inductor current flowing through it.
EQUATION 203:
Q2 AND Q3 HAVE JUST SWITCHED OFF; Q1
AND Q4 ARE OFF
V S1 = – V S2
The behavior is similar to the previous condition. The
current path in the primary is shown in Figure 54.
Consequently, both diodes D5 and D6 are ON and the
inductor current is split in half between the two diode
paths (see Figure 53 and Figure 54).
FIGURE 53:
FULL-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY: Q2 AND Q3 HAVE JUST SWITCHED OFF;
Q1 AND Q4 ARE OFF (PRIMARY CURRENT PATH)
D1
VQ 1
VDC
VD 5
D3
Q1
Q3
NP NS
VQ 3
CI
VS1
VP
CO
D6
VS2
Q2
VQ 2
FIGURE 54:
D2
Q4
VOUT
VD 6
NS
VQ 4
FULL-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY: Q1 AND Q4 HAVE JUST SWITCHED OFF;
Q2 AND Q3 ARE OFF (PRIMARY CURRENT PATH)
D1
VQ 1
VDC
D4
LO
D5
Q1
VD 5
D3
VQ 3
Q3
CI
NP NS
VS1
VP
Co
VS2
Q2
VQ 2
DS01207B-page 60
D2
Q4
D4
LO
D5
D6
VD 6
VOUT
NS
VQ 4
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Design Equations and Component
Selection
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
The product of the primary voltage multiplied by TON
must equal the product of the voltage multiplied by
TOFF.
Computing Equation 197 and Equation 204 results in
Equation 205.
EQUATION 205:
N
V O = ------S- ( V – 2V
D
Q, on ) – V D5, on
N P DC
where D = TON/T and the relationship TON + TOFF = T is
used (see Figure 50)
To guarantee that the two switches of a leg are never
ON at the same time, TON is limited to be at a maximum
percentage of T, as shown in Equation 206.
The primary winding turn can be computed from the
equation that relates the core flux change (ΔB), the
voltage across the winding (VP) and the geometrical
entity (Ae), as shown in Equation 209.
EQUATION 209:
V P, max T ON, max V DC, min D MAX
N P = --------------------------------------- ≈ -----------------------------------ΔBA e
ΔBFPWM A e
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
Since the design specification POUT is known, the input
power can be computed considering a converter
efficiency of η, as shown in Equation 210.
EQUATION 210:
P OUT = ηP IN = ηV DC, min I IN, av δ
where IIN, av is the average input current
(see Figure 55 (E,G,I,K)) and δ = 0.8
Solving Equation 210 results in Equation 211.
EQUATION 206:
T ON, max = δT
where, δ equals 0.8
The resulting maximum duty cycle is shown in
Equation 207.
EQUATION 207:
T ON, max
D MAX = --------------------T
EQUATION 211:
P OUT
I I ( N, av ) = ---------------------------ηV DC, min δ
With some approximation, and replacing the real current waveform (ramp on a step) with a constant value
equal to IIN, av, results in Equation 212.
EQUATION 212:
I IN, av, rms = I IN, av D MAX
TRANSFORMER WINDING TURN RATIO
The maximum TON period will occur when the input
voltage is at its minimum. Using Equation 205 and
Equation 206 results in Equation 207.
EQUATION 208:
T ON, max
( V O + V D5, on ) --------------------NS
T
------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------NP
T ON, max
-------------------( V DC, min – 2V Q, on )
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 61
AN1207
FIGURE 55:
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INPUT CIRCUIT
TON
TOFF
T
Q2 and Q3
Command
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
VQ1
t
(D)
IQ1
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
t
(H)
t
(I)
t
(J)
t
(K)
T
TON
TOFF
Q1 and Q4
Command
VP
VDC - VQ2, on
VDC - VQ3, on
VQ4
IQ4
VDC - VQ1, on
VQ2
IIN, AV
IQ2
VDC - VQ4, on
VQ3
IIN, av
IQ3
(A) = Q2 and Q3 switch the command signal
(B) = Q1 and Q4 switch the command signal
(C) = Primary voltage
(D) = Voltage on MOSFET Q1
(E) = Current flowing into MOSFET Q1
(F) = Voltage on MOSFET Q4
DS01207B-page 62
(G) = Current flowing into MOSFET Q4
(H) = Voltage on MOSFET Q2
(I) = Current flowing into MOSFET Q2
(J) = Voltage on MOSFET Q3
(K) = Current flowing into MOSFET Q3
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, NUMBER OF
TURNS, WIRE SIZE
The secondary number of turns can be computed from
Equation 208 and Equation 209 (see also Figure 56(D
and E)).
To simplify the computation of the secondary rms current value, we do not consider that the contribution to
the current value during TOFF is not calculated (this is
due to the relatively short interval and small value of the
currents). The average value as the medium value during the ramp current is considered (see Figure 56(D
and E)).
Using the previous
Equation 213.
approximation
results
in
SWITCHES
During TON, the maximum voltage drop on Q1 and Q4
are that of Equation 214.
EQUATION 214:
V Q1, off, max = V DC, max – V Q2, on
and
V Q4, off, max = V DC, max – V Q3, on
Similarly, the maximum voltage drop on Q2 and Q3 are
that of Equation 215.
EQUATION 215:
EQUATION 213:
V Q2, off, max = V DC, max – V Q1, on
and
I O, av, rms = I O, nom D MAX
V Q3, off, max = V DC, max – V Q4, on
Equation 216 shows the maximum voltage drop in Q2
and Q3 in more general terms.
EQUATION 216:
V Q, off, max = V DC, max – V Q, on
DIODES
Equation 217 shows the voltage drop on diode D6,
when Q2 and Q3 are ON.
Similarly, Equation 218 shows the maximum drop on
D5, when Q1 and Q4 are ON.
EQUATION 217:
NS
V D6, off, max = – V S1 – V S2 + V D5, on ≈ – 2 ------- ( V DC, max – 2V Q, on ) + V D5, on
NP
EQUATION 218:
NS
V D5, off, max = V S1 + V S2 – V D6, on ≈ – 2 ------- ( V DC, max – 2V Q, on ) + V D6, on
NP
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 63
AN1207
FIGURE 56:
FULL-BRIDGE CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: OUTPUT CIRCUIT
TON
TOFF
T
Q2 and Q3
Command
T
TON
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
t
(D)
t
(E)
t
(F)
t
(G)
TOFF
Q1 and Q4
Command
VS1
ID5
ID6
VL
IO, av
IL
(A) = Q2 and Q3 switch the command signal
(E) = Diode D6 current
(B) = Q1 and Q4 switch the command signal
(F) = Inductor voltage
(C) = Secondary voltage
G) = Output inductor voltage
(D) = Diode D5 current
DS01207B-page 64
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
OUTPUT INDUCTOR
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The minimum inductor can be computed, considering
the system at the edge of the discontinuous mode, as
shown in Equation 219.
The output capacitor is selected to get the specified
output ripple. The greatest contribution to voltage ripple
comes from the capacitor ESR, and the inductor current ripple, flowing through it, determines a voltage
drop.
EQUATION 219:
I O, av
ΔI O V O
I O, peak
= ----------------- = --------- ≈ ---------- T OFF
2
2
2L O
Solving Equation 219 results in Equation 220.
EQUATION 220:
V O ( 1 – D MAX )
L O = -----------------------------------------2I O, av, nom F PWM
The capacitor value itself can then be computed using
Equation 221, which describes the value of the voltage
ripple taking into account all the components.
EQUATION 221:
ESL ⋅ F PWM
D MAX
V RIPPLE = I RIPPLE ⎛ ESR + ----------------------- + ------------------------------⎞
⎝
F PWM C O
D MAX ⎠
Neglecting ESL, since it is normally very small, results
in Equation 222.
EQUATION 222:
I O, ripple D MAX
C O = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------F PWM ( V O, ripple – I O, ripple ESR )
where,
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
V O ( 1 – D MAX )
I O, ripple = -----------------------------------L O F PWM
DS01207B-page 65
AN1207
FLYBACK CONVERTER
Topology Equations - Discontinuous Mode
As presented in AN1114 (see “Introduction”), Flyback
Converters are widely used in applications where an
isolated conversion is required, for low-power ranges
(5W to 150W), and since high output voltages can be
quite easily obtained because there is no inductor in
the output section.
A Flyback Converter can be easily used in either Continuous or Discontinuous mode. In Discontinuous
mode, the output winding current goes to zero before
the end of the TOFF period, so that all the stored energy
is transferred to the load. In Continuous mode, there is
some residual energy stored in the transformer at the
end of the ON and OFF periods.
Both of these modes will be analyzed, starting with the
Discontinuous mode.
Figure 57 shows the basic flyback circuit. The switch is
driven by a signal like the one presented in Figure 58.
FIGURE 57:
BASIC FLYBACK CONVERTER TOPOLOGY
VD1
NP
NS
VP
VS
D1
CO
VOUT
VDC
VQ1
FIGURE 58:
Q1
SWITCH Q1 COMMAND SIGNAL
T
TON
DS01207B-page 66
TOFF
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Q1 ON (INTERVAL 0 – TON)
The stored energy can be easily computed using
Equation 226.
Figure 59 shows the topology for this circuit.
EQUATION 226:
Input Circuit Behavior
Equation 223 shows the voltage on the primary when
the switch is closed.
2
1
E = --- L P I P, peak
2
EQUATION 223:
Output Circuit Behavior
V P = V DC – V Q1, on
The voltage on the secondary winding is shown in
Equation 227.
The dot end is more negative than the non-dot end.
The transformer behaves as an inductor accumulating
energy in its windings. The current flowing in the
primary is shown in Equation 224.
EQUATION 227:
NS
V S = – ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on )
NP
EQUATION 224:
IP
where the minus sign is due to the fact that the dot end
is more negative than the non-dot end terminal.
VP
V DC – V Q1, on
= ------ t = ---------------------------------- t
LP
LP
Therefore, the diode D1 is reverse-biased and no current flows into the output circuit. The output current is
supplied by the output capacitor CO.
The increasing current, starting from zero and with a
peak value reached at t = TON, is equal to
Equation 225.
EQUATION 225:
V DC – V Q1, on
I P, peak = ---------------------------------- T ON
LP
FIGURE 59:
FLYBACK CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL 0 - TON
VD1
NP
VP
NS
VS
D1
CO
VOUT
VDC
VQ1
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
Q1
DS01207B-page 67
AN1207
Q1 OFF (INTERVAL TON – (TON + TR))
EQUATION 229:
The circuit topology is shown in Figure 60.
NP
N P V DC – V Q1, on
I S, peak = ------- I P, peak = ------- ---------------------------------- T ON
LP
NS
NS
Input Circuit Behavior
Q1 is now open and current can no longer flow in the
primary winding. As described in AN1114 (see
“Introduction”), some circuitry to dissipate the energy
in the winding is required (snubber network); however,
it will not be analyzed here.
The voltage at the secondary is shown in Equation 230.
EQUATION 230:
V S = V O + V D1, on
The voltage on the primary can be computed as
Equation 228, in which VS is given by Equation 230,
and the minus sign is due to the dot conversion.
Q1 OFF (INTERVAL (TON +TR) - T)
EQUATION 228:
VP
As previously stated, at time TON + TR, the current in the
secondary has reached zero. To keep the system working in Discontinuous mode, some time (TF) must be
added, as shown in Equation 232.
NP
= – ------- V S
NS
EQUATION 231:
Output Circuit Behavior
As described in AN1114 (see “Introduction”), all voltages change sign so that in the secondary, the dot end
becomes more positive that the non-dot end and the
diode starts conducting current. The current that was
flowing into the primary no longer flows because Q1 is
now open, and transfers to the secondary as an initial
current equal to Equation 229 with a down slope, so
that it reaches zero at time TON + TR.
FIGURE 60:
T = T ON + T R + T F
This is because the TON interval depends on the input
voltage VDC and the output load and if, for instance,
VDC decreases or the output current increases, the ON
duration must be longer. TF will be consequently
reduced, but will allow the system to be discontinuous.
FLYBACK CONVERTER TOPOLOGY: INTERVAL TON - TR
VD1
NP
VP
NS
VS
D1
CO
VOUT
VDC
VQ1
DS01207B-page 68
Q1
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Design Equations and Component
Selection
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
The input/output relationship is computed considering
the power flow from input to output.
From Equation 226 the power stored in the primary can
be computed, as shown in Equation 232.
EQUATION 232:
EQUATION 236:
V DC, min – V Q1, on
I P, peak = -------------------------------------------- T ON, max
LP
EQUATION 237:
N P V DC, min – V Q1, on
I S, speak = ------- -------------------------------------------- T ON, max
NS
LP
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS TURN RATIO
2
2
T ON
( V DC – V Q1, on )
E
P = --- = ---------------------------------------------------2TL P
T
The relationship between input and output power is
shown in Equation 233.
To determine the ratio (NP/NS) we can have a look at
the maximum voltage the Q1 MOSFET has to be able
to sustain.
Considering Figure 57, the maximum voltage on the
switch is equal to that of Equation 238.
EQUATION 238:
EQUATION 233:
P OUT = ηP IN
By combining Equation 232 and Equation 233, the output voltage as a function of the input voltage can be
determined, as shown in Equation 234.
The primary voltage, VP, is calculated using
Equation 228 and Equation 230, which results in
Equation 239.
EQUATION 239:
EQUATION 234:
V O = V DC T ON
V Q1, off, max = V DC, max – V P
ηRF PWM
----------------------2L P
Since the TON interval is a function of the input voltage
VDC, the maximum TON (TON, max) corresponds to the
minimum input voltage (VDC, min). Using these values,
(VDC, min is a design spec and TON, max is usually set
to some value so that TON, max + TR = 0.8T),
Equation 234 can be revised, as shown in
Equation 235.
EQUATION 235:
NP
V Q1, off, max = V DC, max + ------- ( V O + V D1, on )
NS
If a MOSFET is selected with a sufficiently high voltage
rating, VQ1, off is considered as a datum so that in
Equation 239, the only unknown value is (NP/NS);
therefore, NP/NS is equal to that of Equation 240.
EQUATION 240:
V Q1, off, max – V DC, max
NP
------- = ------------------------------------------------------NS
( V O + V D1, on )
ηRF PWM
V O = V DC, min T ON, max ---------------------2L P
Two other equations, primary peak current
(Equation 225) and secondary peak current
(Equation 229), can be revised to take into account the
VDC, min and TON, max relationship, as shown in
Equation 236 and Equation 237, respectively.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 69
AN1207
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TON
To determine the maximum TON, the fact that the core
should never saturate is considered. This means the
voltage-time interval product during energy storage
must equal the voltage-time interval product during the
delivery of energy to the load. In simpler terms, area A1
must equal area A2, as shown in Figure 61.
Considering that TON, max + TR = βT with β < 1, as
shown in Equation 241, which after computation,
results in Equation 242.
EQUATION 241:
T ON, max + T R = βT
EQUATION 242:
T ON, max
NP
------- ( V O + V D1, on )β
NS
= ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------NP
( V Dc, min – V Q1, on ) + ⎛ -------⎞ ( V O + V D1, on ) F PWM
⎝ NS⎠
TRANSFORMER PRIMARY
The value of the transformer primary inductance can be
easily computed using Equation 235, replacing
TON, max with the computed value from Equation 242,
where the design specification, POUT, max = VO2/RO,
results in that of Equation 243.
EQUATION 243:
2
2
2
2
V DC, min T ON, max ηF PWM
V DC, min T ON, max RηF PWM
- = ------------------------------------------------------------L P = ----------------------------------------------------------------2
2P OUT, max
2V O
DS01207B-page 70
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 61:
FLYBACK CONVERTER TOPOLOGY WAVEFORMS: DISCONTINUOUS OPERATION
T
T = TON + TR
TON
TR
TF
Q1 command
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
t
(D)
t
(E)
VDC - VQ1, on
A1
VP
(NP/NS)(VO + VD1, on)
IP, peak
IP
VO + VD1, on
A2
(A) = Command voltage on Q1 MOSFET gate
(B) = Voltage on the primary winding of the transformer
(C) = Current flowing in the primary winding of the transformer
(D) = Voltage on the secondary winding of the transformer
(E) = Current flowing in the secondary winding of the transformer
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 71
AN1207
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
As can be seen in Figure 61(C), the current in the primary has a triangular shape, with a peak at t = TON.
Based on this, the rms value can be computed as
shown in Equation 244.
EQUATION 244:
I P, peak
I PRIMARY, rms = ----------------- T ON, max F PWM
3
In Equation 244, IP, peak is calculated from
Equation 225, and TON, max, is calculated from
Equation 242, which results in that of Equation 245.
EQUATION 245:
V DC, min – V Q1, on
I P, peak = -------------------------------------------- T ON, max
LP
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, WIRE SIZE
From Figure 61(E), the current in the secondary
similarly has a triangular shape. The rms value is then
calculated using Equation 246.
EQUATION 246:
I S, peak
N P I P, peak
I SECONDARY, rms = ---------------- T R F PWM = ------- ----------------- T R F PWM
NS
3
3
OUTPUT DIODE
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The current flowing through the output diode is the
same current flowing into the secondary, with its peak
value computed in Equation 228. The average current
can be computed as shown in Equation 247.
The output capacitor can be computed considering that
it has to supply the whole current to the load during
TON. The criteria to be used is that the voltage droop
should be less than the acceptable output voltage ripple. Since the voltage droop is equal to Equation 249,
the capacitor value can be computed as shown in
Equation 250.
EQUATION 247:
TR
1
I D1, av = --- I S, peak -----T
2
The maximum reverse voltage on the diode, during TON
can be computed as shown in Equation 248.
EQUATION 248:
V Q1, off, max
DS01207B-page 72
NS
= – ------- ( V DC, max – V Q1, on ) – V O
NP
EQUATION 249:
I O, max T ON, max
V DROOP = -------------------------------------CO
EQUATION 250:
I O, max T ON, max
C O = -------------------------------------------------------V ACCEPTABLE_RIPPLE
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Topology Equations – Continuous Mode
Output Circuit Behavior
In Continuous mode applications, the basic circuit does
not change (refer to Figure 57); however, the essential
difference is that the current (both in the primary winding and the secondary winding) will not start and
reaches zero during the PWM period, T. This means
that some energy is still stored in the system when the
PWM period is over.
Equation 256 shows the voltage on the transformer
secondary winding.
The period T is now made up of TON and TOFF only. The
basic topology equations are exactly the same as
before, so they are presented without repeating all of
the previous explanations.
EQUATION 256:
V S = V O – V D1, on
The initial current (reflected from the primary), is shown
in Equation 257.
EQUATION 257:
Q1 ON (INTERVAL 0 – TON)
Input Circuit Behavior
Equation 251 shows the voltage on the primary winding.
EQUATION 251:
NP
N P V DC – V Q1, on
I S, peak = ------- I P, peak = ------- ---------------------------------- T ON
LP
NS
NS
Design Equations and Component
Selection
V P = V DC – V Q1, on
INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIP AND DUTY
CYCLE
The current in the primary is shown in Equation 252.
Looking at Figure 62(B), the areas A1 and A2 must be
equal so that the initial and final points on the transformer core hysteresis curve coincide, as shown in
Equation 258.
EQUATION 252:
V DC – V Q1, on
I P = ---------------------------------- t
LP
EQUATION 258:
Equation 253 shows the peak current at the end of TON.
EQUATION 253:
I P, peak
NS
D
V O = ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on ) ------------NP
1–D
V DC – V Q1, on
= ---------------------------------- T ON
LP
T ON
D = ---------T
Output Circuit Behavior
The voltage on
Equation 254.
the
secondary
is
NP
( V DC – V Q ( 1, on ) )T ON = ------- ( V O + V D ( 1, on ) )T OFF ⇒
NS
shown
in
EQUATION 254:
NS
V S = – ------- ( V DC – V Q1, on )
NP
Q1 OFF (INTERVAL TON – T)
Input Circuit Behavior
The voltage on the primary is shown in Equation 255.
The maximum TON/T value, can be computed from
Equation 258 to occur with VDC, min (where NP/NS is
computed in Equation 260), which results in
Equation 259.
EQUATION 259:
N
------P- ( V O + V D1, on )
T ON, max
NS
--------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------NP
T
( V DC, min – V Q1, on ) + ------- ( V O + V D1, on )
NS
EQUATION 255:
NP
V P = – ------- V S
NS
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 73
AN1207
FIGURE 62:
FLYBACK CONVERTER TOPOLOGY WAVEFORMS: CONTINUOUS OPERATION
TON
TOFF
Q1 command
t
(A)
t
(B)
t
(C)
t
(D)
t
(E)
VDC - VQ1, ON
A1
VP
A2
(NP/NS)(VO - VD1, ON)
IP, peak
IP, av
IP
VO - VD1, ON
VS
(NS/NP)(VDC - VQ1, ON)
IS, peak
IS
(A) = Command voltage on Q1 MOSFET gate
(B) = Voltage on the primary winding of the transformer
(C) = Current flowing in the primary winding of the transformer
(D) = Voltage on the secondary winding of the transformer
(E) = Current flowing in the secondary winding of the transformer
DS01207B-page 74
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS TURN RATIO
TRANSFORMER: SECONDARY, WIRE SIZE
To determine the ratio (NP/NS), the maximum voltage
the Q1 MOSFET can sustain must be calculated, as
shown in Equation 260.
The output average current (IO, av) must be determined. To do so, the output power (which is one of the
design data) is considered, as shown in Equation 263.
EQUATION 260:
EQUATION 263:
V Q1, off, max – V DC, max
NP
------- = ------------------------------------------------------NS
( V O + V D1, on )
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY, WIRE SIZE
Considering a desired output power PO, as shown in
Equation 261, the rms value can be computed replacing the real current (RAM on a step) with a constant
value, equal to IP, av. The rms value is then equal to
Equation 262.
EQUATION 261:
P OUT
I P, av
P OUT
I O, av = -----------------------------------------------------------------------T ON, max
( V O + V D1, on ) ⎛ 1 – ---------------------⎞
⎝
T ⎠
Correspondingly the rms value is that of Equation 264.
EQUATION 264:
I O, rms = I O, av D MAX
TRANSFORMER: PRIMARY INDUCTANCE
T ON, max
= ηP IN = ηI P, av ( V DC – V Q1, on ) --------------------- ⇒
T
P OUT
= ----------------------------------------------------T ON
η ( V DC – V Q1, on ) ---------T
The minimum LP inductance can be easily computed if
the system at the edge of the Discontinuous mode is
considered. This means that the IP, peak is exactly one
half of the increment in primary current during TON.
Therefore, the minimum average input current is that of
Equation 265.
EQUATION 262:
I P, rms = I P, av D MAX
EQUATION 265:
ΔI P
P OUT
( V DC, min – V Q1, on )
I P, av, min = -------------------------------------------------------------------------- = --------- = ------------------------------------------------ T ON, max
2L P
2
T ON, max
η ( V DC, min – V Q1, on ) --------------------T
Solving LP, results in Equation 266.
EQUATION 266:
2
L P = η ( V DC, min – V Q1, on )( V DC, min – V D1, on ) T ON, max F PWM
OUTPUT CAPACITOR
The output capacitor is computed as in
Discontinuous mode, as shown in Equation 267.
the
EQUATION 267:
I O, max T O ( N, max )
C O = -------------------------------------------------------V ACCEPTABLE_RIPPLE
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 75
AN1207
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
TOPOLOGIES
In the following sections, the voltage and current
modes of operation will be described for each topology,
keeping the following two basic questions in mind:
In this section, control loops and voltage and current
modes are analyzed. A Buck Converter is used, but
these techniques are valid for any topology.
1.
2.
In all topologies, it has been seen that an input/output
relationship can be easily obtained. So long as the
desired input and output voltages are known, all that
remains is to compute the PWM duty cycle. In a perfect
world, this would be more than enough.
Voltage Loop
Figure 63 presents the Buck Converter previously studied in detail, with some additional circuitry. A couple of
series resistors (R1 and R2) connected to the output
take a reduced amplitude copy (VFB) of VOUT. This voltage is compared in the error amplifier (EA) with a reference voltage (VREF – the voltage value desired at the
output). The output signal (VX) is used to trim the duty
cycle of the PWM signal that drives the switch.
Unfortunately, in the real world, things behave
differently. The input voltage can change, the load can
vary (i.e., switching the output load On and Off),
components have their tolerances, aging and
temperature drift and, of course, noise is always
present. As a result, performances can differ from
expectations.
To understand how the PWM block works, the
technique that is commonly used in the analog
implementation of such systems will be used initially.
This does not mean that this is the only possible
implementation. Later, how to digitally implement the
same features with a dsPIC® DSC device is discussed.
The analog version is instead quite easy and intuitive
and allows for a simple explanation of how things work.
To keep the behavior of the system under control during unexpected situations, a “control loop” (hardware
and/or firmware) must be added to perform the operation of “controlling” the output voltage. Control loops
allow the design of a circuit where the output voltage
will vary as little as possible when any environmental
condition changes. Moreover, in some cases, control
loops help in preventing dangerous operational situations. Current control loops can prevent flux walking in
the transformers.
FIGURE 63:
What happens to the system output voltage
when the input voltage suddenly changes?
What happens to the output voltage when the
load changes?
The PWM block can be replaced by a comparator that
compares the VX voltage to a sawtooth signal, generated by a local oscillator (see Figure 64). Its frequency
is the PWM frequency.
BUCK CONVERTER - BASIC VOLTAGE LOOP
LO
R1
CO
R0
R2
VX
PWM
DS01207B-page 76
VFB
EA
VREF
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 64:
BUCK CONVERTER - BASIC ANALOG VOLTAGE LOOP
LO
R1
CO
R0
R2
VX
VCTRL
EA
+
VFB
VREF
Sawtooth
Oscillator
VST
Note: VX = VREF – VFB
Here is how the system works. The VFB voltage, representing the current output voltage, is subtracted in the
error amplifier EA from the reference voltage VREF. So,
at least for now, the function of the EA block is just to
perform a subtraction. Signal VX represents the error
between the desired voltage and the “real” voltage the
system is generating at that instant in time. The VX signal at Steady state, has a very slow moving average
value. In the comparator, this signal is compared to the
locally generated sawtooth, as shown in Figure 65,
which results in VCTRL = 1, if VST < VX, or VCTRL = 0, if
VST > VX.
FIGURE 65:
CONTROL VOLTAGE (VCTRL) GENERATED BY COMPARISON BETWEEN ERROR
VOLTAGE (VX) AND THE SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM
VST
VOUT decrease
VX
VOUT increase
VCTRL
Note: VX = VREF – VFB
Since VCTRL is the PWM signal used to drive the
switches, and is based on the value of VX, the duty
cycle will either be small or large.
The operation in the EA is such that when the output
voltage increases, the VX voltage decreases, so that
the PWM duty cycle is reduced and vice versa. The
falling edge of VCTRL moves according to the position
of VX relative to VST.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 77
AN1207
LINE REGULATION
EQUATION 270:
The question now is: how does this system react when
the input voltage changes? In answering this question,
consider that the ultimate goal is to keep the output as
stable as possible against any variation of the input.
I L, peak – I L ( 0 )
I O, av = I L ( 0 ) + -----------------------------------2
So, what happens if the input voltage VDC increases?
Since the up-slope of the inductor current is
proportional to VDC, its slope will increase during TON.
In addition, a couple of basic equations, derived previously must be taken into consideration, which describe
the behavior of the Buck Converter.
With some delay, due to the LC low-pass filter, the
output voltage will change (increase), and with some
additional delay introduced by the EA, the VX signal will
decrease. Therefore, the duty cycle of VCTRL will then
be smaller (see Figure 65). This will reduce the TON
time, reducing as a consequence VOUT and so, after
some time, the output will again be at the nominal
value, with a shorter duty cycle. Note that only the
slope of IL during TON changes. The slope during TOFF,
in the new Steady state condition, must be equal to the
original one, since the system is keeping VOUT
constant.
Equation 268 shows the current in the inductor during
TON, While during TOFF the current is equal to
Equation 269.
EQUATION 268:
( V DC – V OUT )
I L, on ( t ) = ----------------------------------- t
LO
EQUATION 269:
Figure 67 presents the inductor current before the
change in VDC (dashed line) and after the transients
have settled down in a new Steady state (solid line).
The initial and final current values (at t = 0 and t = T)
are lower, but at the same time the peak (point B) is
higher. The average current (IO, av) has not changed
as it was expected since the average output voltage
has not changed. Of course, point B corresponds to a
shorter on period (TON).
V OUT
I L, off ( t ) = – ------------- t
LO
At Steady state, the current value at t = 0 equals the
current value at t = T. This is represented in Figure 66,
in the event of a Continuous operating mode. The output average current (IO, av) (see Equation 270) is also
plotted.
FIGURE 66:
INDUCTOR CURRENT IN CONTINUOUS MODE
IL
IL, peak
IO, av
IL(O) =
IL(T)
O
DS01207B-page 78
TON
T
t
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 67:
VOLTAGE MODE CONTROL - LINE REGULATION
IL
B
A
IO, av
Initial
Final
t
TON
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
TON
T
DS01207B-page 79
AN1207
LOAD REGULATION
At the beginning, since VX increases, the duty cycle will
increase, moving from the original point A to point B.
This means that the current at the end of the PWM
period (point M, current at t = T) will be a bit larger than
the initial current (point H, current at t = 0). The effect is
that at the end of each PWM period, the current step is
greater than zero, as shown in Equation 271.
The question now is: what happens if the load
changes?
For example, if the RO value changes by diminishing,
at the very beginning (because of delays in the system)
the output current will remain as before. This means
that the output voltage will decrease only slightly. As a
consequence, referring again to Figure 64 and
Figure 65, the VX signal will be higher and the duty
cycle will increase. The behavior of the system can be
analyzed using Figure 68, which again represents the
inductor currents, before (dashed line) and after (solid
line) the load change. This time both slopes, during TON
and TOFF, will remain the same, since the input voltage
has not changed and the output voltage is kept
constant by the loop itself.
FIGURE 68:
EQUATION 271:
ΔI L ( t ) = I L ( T ) – I L ( 0 )
When the transient ends, the loop has managed to
bring the output voltage VOUT back to its nominal value
and consequently, the duty cycle is back to its initial
value (there was no change in input voltage VDC). This
means that, in Figure 68, point B has moved to point C,
in the new Steady state. The output average current
has correspondingly increased from IO, av, initial to
IO, av, final, as it was supposed to do since the load RO
has diminished.
VOLTAGE MODE CONTROL - LOAD REGULATION
C
B
A
IO, av, final
IO, av, initial
M
ΔIL(T)
H
t
TON
DS01207B-page 80
T
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
VOLTAGE MODE
It also has some very specific advantages when needing to keep the current flowing into an inductor/transformer winding under control. A typical example
application where the current mode is efficiently used is
a PFC, which is a circuit whose task is to force the current drawn from the AC voltage source to be sinusoidal.
In this case, the current mode control directly operates
on the variable (current) of interest.
As is clearly seen from the previous explanation, the
implementation of a voltage mode control is quite
straightforward. The mechanisms of line and load
regulation are also quite easy to understand. This is
certainly one of the main advantages of this approach.
Moreover, large amplitude signals are usually being
dealt with, which is a benefit because of their good
noise margin.
As seen in Figure 69, a current mode implementation
has in reality two loops: one external controlling the
output voltage (like the one studied in the previous
paragraph) and the second one (internal) controlling
the inductor current. The basic idea of the current mode
is to directly monitor the quantity that is more directly
responsible for the power conversion. Moreover, controlling the current allows to have a much faster
response time.
The key disadvantage of this mode is the delay, which
is always added in reacting to any change of operating
conditions. A change in VDC is only detected because
of its influence on the output voltage, so that from the
original event (change in VDC), detection makes it necessary to wait for the group delay of the low-pass filter.
Moreover, once the change in output is detected, an
additional delay is introduced by the EA. All of these
delays must be taken into account; otherwise, a system
is built that is not functional.
Referring to Figure 69, the EA as before, monitors the
output voltage. Its output is used as a reference signal
to a second amplifier that compares the peak current
flowing into the inductor to the reference signal from the
previous stage.
A change in the load is immediately detected, but
again, there is a delay introduced by the EA before the
countermeasure can be effective on the switch timing.
Remember that when switch Q is closed, the inductor
current has a positive slope waveform (Figure 70). At
the beginning of the PWM period (t0), the PWM output
is set active and the inductor current continues to grow
until the current reaches the value of VX. When they
match (t0 + TON), the PWM signal is reset and remains
low until the next PWM period starts. This system
keeps the peak inductor current under control.
However, this is not the only possible approach, as will
be seen later.
Current Mode
The current mode has been introduced to solve the disadvantages of the voltage control and, specifically, to
reduce the reaction time of the system.
FIGURE 69:
CURRENT MODE CONTROL LOOP
Q
Imeas
PWM
CA
VX
VFB
VREF
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 81
AN1207
FIGURE 70:
INDUCTOR CURRENT
VX
t0
t0 + TON
The key point is that in the Buck Converter, the inductor
current is also the output current, so that controlling it
has the direct control of the quantity of relevance
(VOUT). As previously seen in other systems, for
instance, in a PFC, the inductor current is the input
current and it should be shaped in a sinusoidal way.
This behavior can be best understood by looking at
Figure 71 (dashed lines represent the original Steady
state). For example, as soon as VDC changes by
increasing, the slope of the inductor current changes
(see Equation 268). In this case it will increase. Meanwhile, the output has not yet changed, because of the
delay of the output LOCO filter. Consequently, VFB has
not changed and VX is the same as before. The loop is
still imposing the same inductor peak current as before.
This means that the up-slope current signal will cross
the VX signal before, in point B compared to the Steady
state point A (the transient behavior of the inductor current is shown with line from point L to point B). The duty
cycle is reduced as it should be because of the
increased input voltage. The final, new Steady state
condition is point C, still on the VX line (the peak current
is always the same), having steeper up-slope and the
same down-slope. The important thing is that the reaction to the input voltage change is immediate, without
having to wait for the change to propagate along the
loop. In other words, the system response is much
faster.
In this configuration, the externally generated sawtooth
signal that was used in the voltage mode control is
replaced by the inductor current signal and its peak
value is controlled (limited).
The system is relatively simple but also has a couple of
drawbacks:
• It is preferred to be able to control the average
output current, not the peak current (this is
because the output voltage is proportional to the
average current, not the peak current)
• There are some stability issues
LINE REGULATION
What happens when, being in Steady state, the input
voltage changes? How does the system respond?
FIGURE 71:
T
PEAK CURRENT MODE CONTROL - LINE REGULATION
B
C A
VXO
IO, av, initial
IO, av, final
L
M
H
K
TON, initial
TON, final
TON during transient
DS01207B-page 82
T
t
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
PROBLEMS
EQUATION 273:
As seen in Figure 71, while the input voltage regulation
works fine (an increase in VDC brings about a reduction
of the duty cycle), there is a drawback as seen in
Equation 272. This is due to the fact that the peak
voltage is being kept constant, while the output voltage
VOUT is proportional to the average inductor voltage.
EQUATION 272:
V OUT, av = R O I O, av
However, as observed in Figure 71, the new condition
is such that the inductor current initial and final values
(points H and K) are lower than before (L and M). This
means that the final average inductor (output) current
is lower, as shown in Equation 273.
FIGURE 72:
I O, av, final < I O, av, initial
A lower current will develop a lower output voltage,
which will be detected by the external voltage loop. In
turn, it will try to increase the average (and peak)
current. But the internal loop tries to keep the peak
current constant. An oscillatory effect takes place and
continues for some time.
Another subtle problem of the peak current mode is
that the system is unstable for duty cycles greater
than 0.5, which can be seen in Figure 72 and
Figure 73.
PEAK CURRENT MODE CONTROL - D > 0.5
D > 0.5
ΔI I
Δ IF
Δ I F > ΔI I
FIGURE 73:
CURRENT MODE CONTROL - SLOPE COMPENSATION
Down slope
Down slope
VX
Inductor current
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 83
AN1207
Load Compensation
As seen in Figure 72 when D < 0.5, at steady state, if
for any reason there is a pertibation in the inductor
current, at the end of the PWM period, the amplitude of
the pertibation is reduced (ΔIF < ΔII), so that after a
number of PWM cycles, the system will be back at the
initial condition. On the contrary, if the duty cycle is
greater than 0.5 (Figure 73), the same current
pertibation will be larger at the end of the period and will
grow indefinitely, giving rise to an oscillatory behavior
(ΔIF > ΔII).
What happens when the output load changes?
For example, if the output load changes by decreasing,
the output voltage will momentarily decrease and consequently the VX signal will be higher to compensate
for it (see Figure 74).
The up slope signal will then last longer and will cross
VX at point B, instead of the original point A, and the
duty cycle will correspondingly increase. This will
cause the inductor current level to be higher at the end
of the PWM period compared to its value at the beginning (ΔIF, is extremely exaggerated in Figure 74 for
clarity). This unbalance will remain while the average
current increases to the new equilibrium value. At this
point, the duty cycle is back to its initial value (no
changes in input voltage VDC) and the system has
reached a new steady state.
Without going into too many details, both problems can
be easily corrected replacing the constant VX peak current limit with a down slope signal that equals VX at the
beginning of each period, and which has a down slope
proportional to half the current slope during TOFF
(Figure 73).
FIGURE 74:
PEAK CURRENT MODE CONTROL - LOAD COMPENSATION
B
VX during transient
A
VX at steady state
ΔI F
O
TON during transientT
TON at steady state
DS01207B-page 84
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Other Current Mode Techniques
A second possibility is to implement the so-called hysteretic control, where the current value can change
between two values, which can be either fixed or
dynamically computed by the dsPIC DSC device itself.
In this case, the internal comparators and their threshold set by DACs allow implement of the system without
any intervention from the CPU (see Figure 76).
The current mode previously described with some
detail is not the only one available. The most obvious
technique is one where the loop keeps the average (not
the peak) output current constant. This is good, since
the output voltage is proportional to the average output
current.
As seen in Figure 76, as soon as the decreasing
inductor current reaches threshold one, the current limit
event in the dsPIC DSC device takes place, and
associated with it is the forcing high of the pin. As a
consequence, current starts rising. As soon as it
reaches the second threshold, the fault event takes
place and the output pin is reset, current decreases,
and so on. The frequency of the generated PWM is not
constant, but it will change as a function of line and load
(remember that the up slope is proportional to VIN and
the down slope is proportional to VOUT).
In analog, the circuitry is a bit more complex since
some kind of low-pass filter must be added to the
current loop error amplifier. On the contrary, from a
digital point of view, the technique is very easy since
the average value of the current can be directly
sampled and converted by the ADC if the sampling
trigger is at half the period of the duty cycle. A special
register in the dsPIC DSC device allows the conversion
to start operation exactly at this point (see Figure 75).
FIGURE 75:
ADC TRIGGER GENERATED BY PWM PERIPHERAL
PWM
Signal
Inductor
Current
Trigger to ADC to start conversion
SEVTCMP Register
FIGURE 76:
=
16
16
t
PWM Time Base
Counter
HYSTERETIC CONTROL IMPLEMENTATION WITH A dsPIC® DSC DEVICE
dsPIC® DSC
DAC1
TH1
CL Set
Output
CPU
PWMxH
PWM
IPP
DAC2
TH2
Fault
Reset
PWMxL
TH2
Inductor Current
TH1
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 85
AN1207
The internal comparators can also be used to implement a “constant on” time or a “constant off” time (see
Figure 77 and Figure 78), where the match between
the increasing inductor current and a preset threshold
FIGURE 77:
(DAC output) resets the PWM timer that controls the
PWM period. The two control modes are essentially the
same, the only difference being that the direct or
inverted PWM output is considered.
“CONSTANT ON” TIME WAVEFORM
External Reset
i
Nominal Period
PWM Time Base Counter
TON
FIGURE 78:
TON
“CONSTANT OFF” TIME WAVEFORM
External Reset
i
Nominal Period
PWM Time Base Counter
TOFF
DS01207B-page 86
TOFF
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Control Theory
Up to this point, feedback loops have been considered
where the output VOUT is compared to a reference
value, and the error signal is used to change some specific feature (i.e., the duty cycle) of the power modulator. This is a closed loop system and must be analyzed
with control theory tools.
The problem here is that the system could become
unstable if either the current or voltage loop is used. In
the general circuit, like the one in Figure 63 and
Figure 69, the behavior of any block, excluding EA and
CA can be known or computed. The design challenge
is then to select the EA (and CA) transfer function to be
sure the system is stable.
Equation 276 shows the product of the two terms, G(s)
and H(s), which is called open loop gain (GOL(s)).
EQUATION 276:
G OL ( s ) = G ( s )H ( s )
Figure 80 represents G(s), H(s), GOL(s) and GCL(s).
Remember that the plot is in log scale, so that multiplications correspond to sums and divisions correspond
to subtractions.
FIGURE 80:
CONTROL LOOP
FUNCTIONS
|G(s)|
Before analyzing the Buck Converter circuit from a control theory perspective, some basic relationships must
be formulated.
|GOL(s)|
FEEDBACK LOOPS
|1/H(s)|
Figure 79 presents a general control loop where G(s)
and H(s) are the transfer functions of the two blocks
(Laplace transforms of the impulse responses). x(t) is
the input signal to the system; y(t) is the output; y(t) is
also fed back to the input through H(s) block, whose
output, r(t) is subtracted from the input x(t) to form the
error signal e(t).
FIGURE 79:
f
fCO
|GCL(s)|
Some mathematics to understand the plot are provided
in Equation 277.
CONTROL LOOP
EQUATION 277:
x(t)
+ e(t)
-+
r(t)
G(s)
y(t)
G OL ( s ) = G ( s )H ( s ) ⇒
1
G OL ( s ) dB = G ( s ) dB + H ( s ) dB = G ( s ) dB – ----------H(s)
dB
H(s)
Consequently in this case, where H(s) = const, the
open loop gain is simply obtained moving the G(s) plot
rigidly toward the y-axis an amount equal to |1/Hs)|.
With computation, as shown by Equation 274, the
input/output relationship can be derived, which is called
closed loop gain (GCL(s)).
EQUATION 274:
G(s)
G CL ( s ) = --------------------------------1 + G ( s )H ( s )
GCL(s) can be simplified using Equation 275.
EQUATION 275:
⎧ 1
⎪ ----------- if G ( s ) >>1
G CL ( s ) = ⎨ H ( s )
⎪ G ( s ) if G ( s ) <<1
⎩
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
The problem now is: how can it be determined whether
a system represented by Equation 274 is stable? And,
what are the conditions that make a system stable?
Both questions can be answered with an approximate
analysis.
The key point in control theory is that determining if
(and how well) a closed system, like the one in
Figure 79 is stable, can be accomplished just by
looking at the behavior of the open loop gain (GOL(s)).
In Equation 274, the denominator must be prevented
from becoming zero; otherwise, GCL would be infinitely
large as shown in Equation 278.
EQUATION 278:
1 + G ( s )H ( s ) ≠ 0
DS01207B-page 87
AN1207
Solving Equation 278 results in Equation 279.
EQUATION 279:
The phase of G ( s )H ( s ) must be ≠ 180°where G ( s )H ( s ) = 1
Referring to Figure 80, it is recognized that the point
where |GOL(s)| = |G(s)H(s)| = 1 is fCO (crossover frequency). The phase at this frequency must be different
from 180°. To be on the safe side, a phase of about
130°-140° is requested, or correspondingly a phase
margin = (180° - phase at fCO) ≥ 45°.
With some simplifications, the criteria of stability can be
stated as:
• The slope of GOL(s) at fCO must be -20 dB/decade
and,
• The phase margin at fCO must be at least 45°.
These are only sufficient conditions for the stability, but
are widely used because of their simplicity.
The meaning of the second criteria should be clear
from the previous discussion. The first criteria can be
interpreted this way.
By looking at the GOL(s) transfer function, it is observed
that it is a ratio of polynomials. With some effort (at this
point it does not really matter how difficult it can be), the
GOL(s) numerator and denominator can be transformed into the product of first order terms (eventually
complex numbers), as shown in Equation 280.
EQUATION 280:
( s – zk )
∏
( s – pl )
=1
G OL ( s ) = k--------------------------M
Now that you have a rough idea of the meaning of stability and the criteria to determine if a system is stable,
refer back to the Buck Converter with a voltage mode
control loop (Figure 63). It is imperative to match the
converter functions to the general control theory block
diagram and determine the transfer functions.
Therefore, Figure 63 can be redrawn as Figure 81,
where G(s), the input to output transfer function, is
made up of three blocks:
H(s), the transfer function from the output to the input is
absent, or better: H(s) = 1.
l=1
FIGURE 81:
POWER CONVERTER AND CONTROL
THEORY
• GEA(s) is the error amplifier transfer function
• GM(s) is the transfer function of the PWM
generator
• GLP(s) is the output low-pass filter transfer
function.
N
∏
Each term of the numerator is a zero, each term at the
denominator is a pole. In normal conditions, like those
encountered in power supply units, each zero
contributes to the open loop gain phase with a +π/2
phase contribution, while each pole contributes with a
–π/2 phase contribution. From the point of view of the
loop gain, each zero gives place to a change in the
slope of the gain itself of +20 dB/decade, while a pole
gives a -20 dB/decade slope change. Therefore, the
slope the GOL(s) criteria previously mentioned can be
interpreted as in the nearby of the crossover frequency
(fCO), the total contribution to the loop gain is similar to
what a single pole system would provide.
BUCK CONVERTER VOLTAGE MODE LOOP
VREF
GEA(s)
DS01207B-page 88
GM(s)
GLP(s)
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
The GM(s) transfer function is probably not immediately
intuitive. But think of it this way: if the input signal is a
DC value with a small amplitude sinusoidal waveform
ripple superimposed, the output will be a PWM signal
whose duty cycle value follows the same sinusoidal law
around the Steady state value. Simplistically, the input/
output relationship is the ratio between the output duty
cycle range and the input sinusoidal amplitude and the
frequency is preserved. There are a few different
techniques that can be used to mathematically
determine the I/O relationship. Without going into such
details the important thing is that as soon as the
topology and the power system have been decided,
GM(s) can be computed.
FIGURE 84:
ERROR AMPLIFIER
TRANSFER FUNCTION
|GEA(s)|
f
GLP(s) is somehow easier, and can be computed analytically, considering the low-pass filter in Figure 82,
where the output capacitor ESR has also been taken
into account.
Referring to the previous equations, GOL(s) =
G(s)H(s) = GEA(s)GM(s)GLP(s), being H(s) = 1.
FIGURE 82:
Working in dB, results in Equation 281.
BUCK CONVERTER
OUTPUT STAGE
L
VI
fp
fz
EQUATION 281:
VOUT
G OL ( s ) dB = G EA ( s ) dB + G M ( s ) dB + G LP ( s ) dB
known
CO
R0
known
ESR
unknown
unknown
The following details the preferred gain even if |GOL(s)|
is not known:
At this point, GM(s) and GLP(s) are known: the design
effort consists in finding a function GEA(s) that makes
the system stable according to the definition previously
given. In an analog design, this translates into the
computation of a few passive components in standard
compensating networks, where an op amp is used.
One such circuit is shown in Figure 83 and its transfer
function is shown in Figure 84.
FIGURE 83:
ERROR AMPLIFIER
NETWORK
It can be concluded, the known and desired |GOL(s)|
value can be stated, resulting in Equation 282.
C2
C1
EQUATION 282:
R2
G EA ( s ) dB = G OL ( s ) dB – G M ( s ) dB – G LP ( s ) dB
R1
VIN
GEA(s)
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
• The lower the frequency, the higher the gain
should be; this is because a very high gain at low
frequencies gives place to small Steady state
errors
• The higher the frequency, the smaller the gain
should be to reduce the effects of high frequency
noise
• In between frequencies it would be best to have a
fairly constant gain
VOUT
In an analog implementation, a graphical solution can
easily be found. In a less systematic approach, different capacitor values can be tested in the circuit of
Figure 83 and Figure 84 until a satisfactory solution is
found.
DS01207B-page 89
AN1207
Digital Solutions
Until now, only the analog solutions (how the voltage
and current mode loops can be implemented in analog)
have been considered. This is because, for beginners,
it is easier to understand the basic concepts in the analog domain first and then convert them to the digital
world. On the contrary, many experienced converter
designers have great experience in analog design and
the presented material is the foundation upon which the
digital approach is built on.
Of course, in a digital solution the passive power
components will be used; what changes is the way the
PWM is generated and how the feedback loop is
implemented.
An overview of Microchip Switch Mode Power Supply
devices follows, which provides an understanding of
their architecture and the features they provide, which
can be used to implement a Switch Mode Power Supply.
SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)
dsPIC DSC DEVICES
Microchip’s dsPIC DSC SMPS devices have been
created specifically to aid designers with the
implementation of digital switching systems. These
devices are 16-bit processors based on the well
established dsPIC30F and dsPIC33F family of devices,
with three main building blocks:
• 16-bit MCU
• Digital Signal Processor core
• Intelligent Power Peripheral (IPP)
IPP is a superset of three peripherals: a PWM generator, a high-speed 10-bit analog-to-digital converter
(ADC), and a high-speed comparator. Nothing new
compared to many other processors? On the contrary,
a lot of new features! The key points are:
The PWM can generate a set of triggers that will start
the ADC operation, fault signals can stop the PWM
operation, currents greater than a defined threshold in
the internal comparators can inhibit the PWM outputs,
and the PWM period counter can be reset by external
signals to implement constant-off/-on outputs.
The high-speed 10-bit ADC can sample up to five
signals at the same time and will always convert two
input channels at a time (usually one current and one
voltage). Multiple triggers can start the converter
operation:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The comparators can be used to detect overcurrent, or
as in some current mode loops, be used to detect when
the inductor current has reached a preset value.
While the IPP takes care of the greater part of the generation and management of the PWM, ADC, and comparator signals, the CPU and its DSP engine have
plenty of time to perform the computations required to
close the control loop in a digital solution.
The 16-bit by 16-bit, high-speed multiplier and the 40bit accumulators allow a very efficient implementation
of even high-complexity control algorithms. The
operations required to implement a digital loop are
basically a sequence of multiply/accumulate
instructions. The DSP core is capable of implementing
such instructions in a very efficient way. The MAC
instruction performs the following operations in one
machine cycle (33 ns in dsPIC30F devices, 24 ns in
dsPIC33F devices):
• High performance of the peripherals
• High degree of interconnection between the three
mentioned peripherals, that cooperate to the generation and control of the PWM output waveform
without the direct intervention of the CPU
1.
2.
The PWM signals (up to four complimentary outputs)
can have the same frequency, or each one can operate
independently with a duty cycle resolution as low as
1.05 ns. The PWM can operate in nine different modes:
4.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Standard edge-aligned PWM
Complementary PWM
Push-pull PWM
Multi-phase PWM
Variable phase PWM
Fixed off-time PWM
Current reset PWM
Current-limit PWM
Independent time base PWM
DS01207B-page 90
Individual software trigger
Global software trigger
PWM Special Event Trigger
PWM generators trigger
Timer1 or Timer2 period match
PWM generators current-limit ADC trigger
PWM generators Fault ADC trigger
3.
Multiply two values.
Accumulate the current multiply result to
previous sums.
Update the registers containing the two factors
with new values for the following mac operation.
Increment pointers so that they point to the
values that will be used later.
Efficient usage of the memory allows implementation of
fast accesses to locations in RAM (and in Flash) without reducing the overall speed of the processing unit.
Specifically, one of the key problems in executing a mac
operation is that while the multiply/accumulate computational part is performed, two new data must be
fetched from the RAM to be ready for the next iteration.
This means that it must be possible to make a readaccess to RAM twice in one instruction cycle. Multiple
solutions are available. Microchip’s approach is to split
(only for mac class instructions) RAM into two parts (XRAM and Y-RAM) and duplicate the address and data
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
bus and the address generating hardware. Two paths
are thus available through which two new factors can
be fetched simultaneously.
Figure 85 also shows how the PID is inserted in the
block diagram representing a system. The goal of the
PID block is to generate an output u(t) that drives the
system at hand (the “PLANT”) so that its output [y(t)]
matches a reference signal [x(t)]. The input to the PID
is the error between the reference signal (ideal or
desired behavior of the PLANT) and the real output
behavior. Obviously, the target is to operate such that
an error that is as close to zero as possible results.
To complete a control loop implementation, some
additional work is needed to set up initial conditions
and usually, to check that the results are within a
specified range; however, a full control loop
computation is normally performed in 1 to 2
microseconds.
Comparing Figure 81 and Figure 85 it is recognized
that GEA transforms in the PID controller, while the
PLANT is the product of GM(s)GLP(s).
THE PID
In both the voltage and current mode control loops, in
the analog solution, the objective was to design the
transfer function of the error amplifier (GEA(s)) to make
the system stable. A similar design objective is to be
reached in the digital design.
In the following, starting from the description of a PID in
the analog domain, it will be transformed into the
equivalent digital PID.
For Figure 85, the equation that describes the behavior
in the continuous time domain is shown in
Equation 283.
A very commonly used building block is the PID (proportional, integrative, derivative). It is normally used
also in the analog domain, and is found to be a very
easy and useful application in the digital domain also.
EQUATION 283:
As it can be guessed from its name, a PID is made of
three basic blocks whose outputs are:
u ( t ) = KP e ( t ) + KI
• Proportional to the input
• The integral of the input
• The derivative of the input
And its transfer function is (Laplace transform of the
impulse response) shown in Equation 284.
Although there are a number of ways these blocks can
be interconnected, the most traditional technique will
be investigated, where the three blocks are connected
in parallel, as shown in Figure 85.
FIGURE 85:
de ( t )
e ( t )dt + K D -----------dt
EQUATION 284:
2
KI
KD s + KP s + KI
U ( s ) = K P + ----- + K D s = ----------------------------------------s
s
GENERIC SYSTEM CONTROLLED BY A PID
Proportional
KP
Up(t)
Integrative
KI
Ui(t)
Derivative
KD
Ud(t)
e(t)
x(t)
+
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
+
U(t)
PLANT
y(t)
DS01207B-page 91
AN1207
As shown in Figure 86, there are two zeros and one
pole at the origin. A high gain at low frequency is preferred to reduce DC errors, while a high gain at high frequency should be avoided (noise and spurious signals
would be enhanced). This is why very often the transfer
function is slightly changed to add a second pole (fp2,
dashed transfer function).
The next step is to transform the analog PID and its
equations in the discrete time version. To do that, a
mapping from the s-domain to the z-domain must be
performed using the Equation 285.
transformation called Z-transform. One of the most
notable features of the Z-transform is that a rational
transfer function in s transforms in a rational transfer
function in z -1. This means that, starting from an
analog transfer function like the one in Equation 280, a
transfer function is obtained in the digital domain which
strictly resembles it, as shown in Equation 286.
EQUATION 286:
N
–1
A ∏ ( 1 – cr z )
EQUATION 285:
r=1
H ( z ) = ---------------------------------------M
∏ ( 1 – dk z
–1
1–z
s → ---------------T
–1
)
k=1
where T is the sampling period
The z-domain is the most useful domain where
sampled signals can be analyzed and systems
synthesized. This is the discrete systems counterpart
of the Laplace transform. It is easy to move from the
time domain to the z-domain and vice versa through a
FIGURE 86:
There are a few possible variable transformations like
the one in Equation 285 that maps the s-domain to the
z-domain. Each transformation has different
characteristics of how the two domains map to each
other; however, the details are beyond the scope of this
application note.
ANALOG PID TRANSFER FUNCTION
U(s)
Pole at the origin
-20 db/sec
+20 db/sec
fZ 1
DS01207B-page 92
fZ 2
fP2
f
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
The block diagram now is as shown in Figure 87.
FIGURE 87:
GENERIC SYSTEM CONTROLLED BY A DIGITAL PID
Up(z)
Proportional
kp
VREF
Integrative
+
E(z)
Ui(z)
ki T
--------------–1
1–z
+
Derivative
U(Z)
PLANT
+
Ud(z)
kd
–1
----- ( 1 – z )
T
Using the mathematics shown in Equation 287, the
transfer function in the z-domain can easily be
obtained.
The results are shown in Equation 288.
EQUATION 288:
–1
–1
–2
U ( z ) ( 1 – z ) = [ K A + K B z + K C z ]E ( z )
EQUATION 287:
UP ( z ) = kp E ( z )
Going back to the time domain (performing the inverse
Z-transform) is shown in Equation 289.
ki T
- E( z)
U i ( z ) = --------------–1
1–z
kd
–1
U d ( z ) = ----- ( 1 – z )E ( z ) ⇒
T
k
ki T
–1
- + ----d- ( 1 – z ) E ( z )
U ( z ) = k p + --------------–1
T
1–z
2
–1
–2
( k p T + k i T + k d ) – ( k p T + 2k d )z + k d z
-E ( z ) ⇒
U ( z ) = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------–1
T(1 – z )
–1
U ( z ) ( 1 – z ) = [ KA + KB z
–1
–2
+ K C z ]E ( z )
where
kd
kd
kd
K A = k P + k i T + ----- ;K B = – ⎛⎝ k p + 2 -----⎞⎠ ;K C = ----T
T
T
EQUATION 289:
u ( n ) = u ( n – 1 ) + KA e ( n ) + KB e ( n – 1 ) + KC e ( n – 2 ) ⇒
u ( n ) = u ( n – 1 ) + ( k p + k i + k d )e ( n ) + – ( k p + 2k d ) e ( n – 1 ) + k d e ( n – 2 )
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 93
AN1207
The meaning of such an expression is that the current
value of the output [u(n)] (in this case the duty cycle of
the PWM) is computed from the value of the output at
the previous instant in time [u(n - 1)], plus the current
error times a coefficient (KA), plus the error from previous step times another coefficient (KB), plus the error
from two steps ago, times a third coefficient (KC).
This is the discrete time domain equation the dsPIC
DSC device is requested to calculate. Note that this
operation is performed at maximum, once per PWM
period, T.
The terms in Equation 289 can be rearranged, as
shown in Equation 290.
EQUATION 290:
u(n ) =
+ u(n – 1) +
+ kp [ e ( n ) – e ( n – 1 ) ] +
+ ki [ e ( n ) ] +
+ k d [ e ( n ) – 2e ( n – 1 ) + e ( n – 2 ) ]
A few comments regarding Equation 290:
• The proportional contribution depends on the
difference between the current error and the
previous error.
• The integrative contribution depends on the
current error.
• The derivative contribution depends on the
increment of the error, which can be rewritten as
Equation 291.
1. If all errors are ‘0’, u(n) = u(n - 1).
2. If there is a constant error:
a) The proportional contribution is ‘0’.
b) The integrative part presents a non-zero
contribution.
c) The derivative part presents a zero
contribution.
3. If only KP is present (KI and KD = 0) when the
current error is very close to the previous error,
u(n) no longer changes. This explains the residual error received in this condition. This residual
error then depends also on the resolution being
used in the ADC and the computations.
4. If only KI is present, there is always a contribution, even when the e(n) is constant. Again, the
total residual error depends on the ADC and
computations resolution.
EQUATION 291:
[ e ( n ) – 2e ( n – 1 ) + e ( n – 2 ) ] = [ e ( n ) – e ( n – 1 ) ] – [ e ( n – 1 ) – e ( n – 2 ) ] = Δe n – 1, n – Δe n – 2, n – 1
If starting from Equation 292, and nulling two out of
three
coefficients
(KB = KC = 0),
results
in
Equation 293, which means that in reality, a
contribution is coming from all three building blocks.
EQUATION 292:
u ( n ) = u ( n – 1 ) + KA e ( n ) + KB e ( n – 1 ) + KC e ( n – 2 )
EQUATION 293:
u ( n ) = u ( n – 1 ) + KP e ( n ) + KI e ( n ) + KD e ( n )
DS01207B-page 94
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
Behavior of the PID
1.
As can be assumed from Equation 284 and
Equation 288, changing the values of KP, KI and KD
changes the behavior of the PID system, which
changes its frequency response. It is not easy to see
the relationship between the coefficients and the
transfer function.
Table 4 can be useful as a starting point to
understand the relationship between the
coefficients and the system behavior. It should
be noted however, that this table is only a
starting point since dissimilar systems behave
differently.
Referring to Equation 287 in the z-domain:
• If KP ≠ 0 and KI = KD = 0, the transfer function is a
constant kp
• If KI ≠ 0 and KP = KD = 0, the transfer function has
a zero in the origin and a pole in z = 1
• If KD ≠ 0, KP = KI = 0, the transfer function has
one zero in z = 1 and one pole in the origin
The proportional term alone is capable of sensibly
reducing the error, but it cannot nullify it, because (refer
to Equation 290) when the error is almost constant (no
matter its absolute value), but not zero, the output from
the PID computation is constant. This means that the
proportional term can sensibly reduce the error, but at
the end a non-zero residual error always results, which
cannot be completely eliminated by the proportional
factor only.
To overcome this difficulty, the integral term representing the memory of the system, is capable of reducing
the proportional residual error to zero. But the integral
term should be used with caution, since it can bring the
system to oscillation. The continuous accumulation of
non-zero values can bring the system to saturate on
one side, and then to the other side, and so on.
The derivative component helps the system to be
reactive to sharp changes in the error value, since its
contribution is proportional to the difference between
current and previous errors.
Until now, nothing has been said about the values of
the three coefficients, KP, KI and KD. There are basically two methods that can be used to determine their
values:
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
An empirical approach starting with KP ≠ 0,
KI = KD = 0 and trimming the KP value until a
small residual error is received, and then
incrementing KI, until the system reaches an
almost zero final error. And finally, the kd term is
incremented to improve the performances of the
system against step changes in the input error.
TABLE 4:
Closed
Loop
Response
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
COEFFICIENTS AND SYSTEM
BEHAVIOR
Rise
Time
Overshoot
Settling
Time
Steady
State
Error
KP
Decrease
Increase
Small
change
Decrease
KI
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Eliminate
KD
Small
change
Decrease
Decrease Small
change
2.
The second approach is more systematic and is
known as the Ziegler/Nichols method. In this
technique, start by incrementing the proportional gain (while the other coefficients are zero)
until the system is at the edge of stability (step
changes are applied to the reference value).
In this condition the output is an oscillation with
period T and the corresponding coefficient is KP.
The other coefficients are read from tables that
can be found in Control Theory textbooks.
It should also be noted that the full PID equation is not
often implemented. Often, only the proportional-integration part (PI) is implemented. This depends on the
system and system responses needed.
DS01207B-page 95
AN1207
THE DIGITAL CONTROL LOOP WITH THE
dsPIC DSC DEVICE
The feedback voltage is converted by the on-board
ADC. In the dsPIC DSC device, a 10-bit value is
returned; in reality it is known that the converter always
converts two signals. This is intended to make available to the user, at the same time, a voltage and a current. In this implementation the current measurement is
not used. Instead, a basic voltage control loop is implemented.
How does the PID fit into the DC-DC converter control
loops? Thinking in “digital terms” Figure 63 is redrawn,
as shown in Figure 87, where the sequence of operations is split between peripherals (hardware) of the
SMPS parts and computations (firmware).
FIGURE 88:
BUCK CONVERTER VOLTAGE MODE CONTROL LOOP IMPLEMENTED ON A
dsPIC® DSC DEVICE
LO
R1
R0
C0
VDC
R2
VOUT
dsPIC® DSC
16
DSP Engine
MAC
Operation
Duty Cycle
Register
10
+
PWM IPP
16
VREF
PID Coefficients
Buffer
Error Samples
Buffer
16
KA
16
16
e(n)
X
16
KB
16
e(n - 1)
X
16
KC
A/D
16
X
32
32
32
e(n - 2)
(discarded)
40-bit Accumulator
16
Boundary Tests
16
PID Computation
(Duty Cycle)
DS01207B-page 96
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
The voltage from the ADC is subtracted from the reference signal and the resulting error is fed into the DSP
engine to implement the PID.
The DSP engine implements Equation 289 exactly.
The 40-bit accumulator in the DSP engine is used to
accumulate the previous result values, which is value
u(n) in Equation 294.
EQUATION 294:
u ( n ) = u ( n – 1 ) + KA e ( n ) + KB e ( n – 1 ) + KC e ( n – 2 )
The PID output (u(n)) is the current duty cycle value
and is written into the IPP PWM duty cycle register.
This is almost all that is needed to implement a basic
digital loop. In reality, some attention must be paid to
the fact that, if the feedback voltage is very far from the
reference voltage, large contributions to the duty cycle
are accumulated. This results in the effect that the duty
cycle can become too large, with a saturation effect.
However, the PID can recover from this situation, but it
is better to avoid it since the response time is greatly
affected. A good practice is to clamp the duty cycle
value to the PWM period (this is the meaning of
“boundary tests” in Figure 87).
In the digital implementation of the control loop, there
are some delays that must be taken into account:
• Analog-to-Digital sample/convert time
• PID computations time
• Some non-zero delay in the power component
response
• Low-pass filter delay
All of these delays can be summed up as this time provides a boundary condition for the sampling frequency,
in that it does not make any sense to sample the system faster that the reverse of this time. In other words,
this is the required time for any change in the system to
propagate along the loop.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
The reverse of this delay time determines the maximum sampling frequency that is reasonable to use in
the system. Remembering the Nyquist sampling theorem, which states that to be able to reconstruct the original signal, the sampling frequency must be at least
twice the maximum frequency of the signal of interest.
This value of 2 is in fact only theoretical; in the real
world it must be higher. Typical values can be from 6 to
10. Correspondingly, the maximum signal frequency
that can be correctly operated upon is six to ten times
smaller that the sampling frequency.
To clarify the concept, look at Figure 89(A), where fs is
the sampling frequency, and fm is the maximum signal
frequency value.
Optimally, trying to speed up as much as possible the
operation of the digital loop to have the smallest possible delay in the loop, which is the maximum available
sampling frequency. But why? The key point is that if
there is a high sampling frequency, the maximum signal frequency is high; this means that the loop can easily respond to high frequency changes in the
environmental conditions of the system. A graphical
example is in Figure 89(B) for two different values of fs
(fs1 < fs2). Keeping the same ratio between sampling
frequency and maximum allowable signal frequency,
results in a larger bandwidth with fs2 compared to fs1.
To further investigate the concept, suppose the input
voltage VDC has some ripple added, and this ripple is a
sinusoid of frequency fO. If the sinusoid frequency is
small, the system can easily adapt the parameters of
the converter to compensate for this sinusoidal change
in the input and give a stable (without ripple) output.
Now, continuously increment the sine wave frequency.
Up to a certain value, the system will be able to follow
it and compensate; but for some value of f the system
will fail to correctly compensate up to a situation where
the system delay will be longer than the period of the
sinusoid and the loop will completely fail to control the
output voltage (see Figure 89(C), with some
simplifications).
DS01207B-page 97
AN1207
FIGURE 89:
SYSTEM LOOP BANDWIDTH
AND SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
finite set of output possible values. For example, in a
10-bit ADC, only 1024 output values are available,
while the input has an infinitely continuous range.
So, what is the effect of such discretizations?
Both of them can be considered as noise that is added
to the signals. However, the analysis of the effects of
such additive noise if far beyond the scope of this application note. But, an important point regarding discretization can be introduced: how the ADC and the digital
PWM resolution will impact the behavior of the system.
(A)
The minimum ADC resolution can be computed from
the ratio of the desired output voltage amplitude and
the required precision in volts of the output voltage,
according to the relationship shown in Equation 295.
fm
t
fs
EQUATION 295:
V OUT
res = log 2 ----------------------------------------ΔV OUT, requested
A 5V nominal output when a 1% precision is required,
results in Equation 296.
(B)
EQUATION 296:
5
res = log 2 ---------- ≈7 bits
0.05
fm1 fm2
fs1
fs2
t
fs1fs2
-------= --------- ⇒ fm2 > fm1
fm1
fm2
As for the digital PWM peripheral, there are two different resolutions. The digital PWM frequency resolution
depends on the number of bits used to generate the
basic frequency. In SMPS devices the frequency of the
PWM can be computed with Equation 297.
System Bandwidth
EQUATION 297:
(C)
A
B
6
14, 55 • 10 • 64
F PWM ≈ ----------------------------------------PTPER
C
where PTPER is the register setting the PWM frequency
fm
fs
t
A, B and C represent the sinusoidal superimposed signal to the nominal duty cycle, where:
A = Signal is compensated by the system
B = Signal is only partially compensated
C = Signal is not compensated at all
The minimum change in frequency corresponds to the
minimum change in the value of the PTPER register. In
dsPIC30F devices, since the three Least Significant
bits (LSbs) in the register are not available, the
minimum change is 8 (23 = 8), which corresponds to
8,4 ns. Table 5 provides the frequency resolution that
can be received for various values of the nominal
frequency. The resolution is plotted in Figure 90.
One of the main differences between the analog and
the digital loop, is that while in the former all values in
time and amplitude are continuous, in the latter time
and amplitude are both discretized. Time is discrete
since, as seen above, samples of the signals have
been taken with a fixed period repetition rate. Amplitude is discrete since the ADC maps input values into a
DS01207B-page 98
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
TABLE 5:
FREQUENCY RESOLUTION
Frequency
Maximum
Frequency
Minimum
Frequency
100000
100085,98
99914,16
150000
150193,55
149806,95
200000
200344,23
199656,95
250000
250538,10
249464,21
300000
300775,19
299228,79
350000
351055,58
348950,75
400000
401379,31
398630,14
450000
451746,44
448267,01
500000
502157,03
497861,42
550000
552611,14
547413,42
600000
603108,81
596923,08
650000
653650,11
646390,43
700000
704235,09
695815,54
FIGURE 90:
Δf
4500,00
4000,00
3500,00
3000,00
2500,00
Series1
2000,00
1500,00
1000,00
500,00
Frequency
0,00
100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000 450000 500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 99
AN1207
The second resolution in PWM signals is the duty cycle
resolution, which at 1.05 ns is very high.
The ADC interrupt, as pointed out, is the real “core” of
the firmware. The basic operations performed are:
A parameter that is worth computing, is the system
output resolution, which is how much the output voltage
will change in response to a minimum change in the
PWM duty cycle. This is a measure of the minimum
correction of the output voltage that can be generated
(see Equation 298).
1.
2.
EQUATION 298:
4.
ΔV MIN = V OUT, nom • 105ns
,
• F PWM
For example, a 100 kHz PWM frequency and nominal
5V output voltage results in Equation 299.
EQUATION 299:
3
ΔV MIN = 5 • 105ns
,
• 100 = 05mV
,
A final consideration is that the PWM resolution should
be at least one bit higher that the ADC resolution; otherwise, the output value will cross the boundary
between two ADC values and the system will continuously try to reach a stable condition, oscillating
between these two values.
CODE EXAMPLE
The block diagram in (Figure 91) shows a real implementation of a voltage mode closed loop. The code
used in this application note is available for download
(see Appendix A: “Source Code”).
The main program is composed of two parts:
1.
2.
A set of initialization routines, where all the
peripherals used (IPP PWM and IPP ADC) are
programmed.
A main loop. In the example (Figure 91) it is
empty. This is because all the relevant
operations are performed in the ADC interrupt
routine.
3.
5.
Collect data from the ADC hardware.
Compute the difference between the currently
read voltage value of the system (VFB) and the
reference voltage value.
Implement the PID, whose output is the duty
cycle.
Clamp the computed value between a minimum
and a maximum value.
Update the duty cycle with the currently
generated (new) duty cycle.
The processor is run from its internal Fast RC (FRC)
oscillator, with a nominal frequency of 14.55 MHz. An
internal PLL (32x) raises the operating frequency of the
core and peripherals. Taking advantage of the clock
speed and high performance DSP engine, the ADC
interrupt routine is executed in 1.4 µs, and the basic
PID functionality is performed in 1.15 µs.
In general terms, it is not necessary to update the duty
cycle at each PWM period. As seen before, the duty
cycle update frequency is what determines the maximum loop bandwidth, which is the capability of the system to respond to fast changes in the input (line
regulation) or output (load regulation). If for instance,
the PWM frequency is 200 kHz, and the voltage/current
is sampled and the duty cycle is updated every other
period, this results in a 100 kHz update rate, which is
10 µs between two successive interactions with the
system.
If the firmware requires 1.4 µs to execute the ADC routine, 8.6 µs (10 – 1.4 = 8.6) are still available to perform
all necessary operations, such as, communication on
the UART and/or the management of a human interface. The dsPIC DSC device is powerful enough to provide the capability to implement not only the raw control
loop, but additional functionality as well!
The reason for this is that the computations (as
previously seen) should be performed as fast as
possible to increase the bandwidth of the
system. The main loop will be periodically
interrupted by the high-priority ADC Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR), so that low priority tasks
can be performed in this loop. For instance, the
management of the user interface or
communication to external units.
DS01207B-page 100
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
FIGURE 91:
PROGRAM FLOW
MAIN
Init Routines
Init Vars
Init Ports
Init I/O
Init Timer1
Init PWM
Init ADC
Output Voltage
Ramp-up
Endless Loop
NOP
ADC ISR
Dummy
Select Pair
Input Voltage
Output Voltage
Pair AN2/AN3
Read Output Voltage
Read Input Voltage
VIN
RETFIE
Compute Error
RETFIE
Compute PID
Boundary Checks
RETFIE
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 101
AN1207
DETAILED CODE DESCRIPTION
In the following section some details of the code that
implements the basic PID functionality are analyzed.
In this design, the code has been designed and tested
using Microchip’s dsPICDEM™ Buck Development
Board (part number DM300023).
Variables Definition
A buffer for the error values is allocated in X-RAM
memory in the near area, as shown in Example 1.
• InitPorts
A few pins from port B are used as analog inputs
so the configuration register must be consistently
programmed. PORTE I/O pins are used by the
PWM peripheral also and are initialized as output
pins.
• InitIO
A fixed low value is output on the PWM ports at
start-up in order to discharge any cap that could be
storing energy from previous runs.
• InitTimer1
EXAMPLE 1:
.section PidVars_Xmem, bss, near, xmemory
; Pid values
Error_n:
.space 2
Error_n_1:
.space 2
Error_n_2:
.space 2
Initializes Timer1 and enables interrupts.
• InitPWM
One PWM channel is enabled in the following
configuration:
a)
Another buffer for the PID coefficients is allocated in
Y-RAM, again in the near area, as shown in
Example 2.
c)
EXAMPLE 2:
.section PidVars_Ymem, bss, near, ymemory
;Pid gain values
K_A:
.space 2
K_B:
.space 2
K_C:
.space 2
Some additional service variables are also allocated in
the near area, as shown in Example 3.
EXAMPLE 3:
MyFlag:
Vdesired:
Vset:
Vin:
Vfb:
SystemTimer:
Vctrl:
b)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Primary time base provides timing for this
PWM generator.
DCx register provides duty cycle
information for this PWM generator.
Positive dead time actively applied for all
output modes.
Dead time period (0x0190).
Trigger output for every second trigger
event.
PWM module controls the PWMxH and
PWMxL pins.
Fault input is disabled.
Compare value for PWM time base for
trigger the ADC module (= 8).
• ADC
.space
.space
.space
.space
.space
.space
.space
2; bit flags
2
2
2
2
2
2
Code Description
The main code starts with some initialization routines:
• InitVars
Clears the buffers and initializes the KA, KB and KC
parameters. It also initializes some core register
bits to obtain the desired behavior of the DSP
engine (signed mode enabled for DSP multiply
operations, accumulator A saturation enabled,
data space write saturation enabled, integer mode
enabled for DSP multiply operations). Pointers are
initialized at the beginning of the two buffers.
DS01207B-page 102
The converter is enabled with a clock of 13.3 MHz;
pairs 0 and 1 are configured so that IRQ is generated and the trigger is, in both cases, the PWM1
generator.
• StartOps
Starts the timers and all operations of the system.
The target output voltage is set (VSET) and the initial output voltage is fixed to some small value
(VDESIRED = 0x40).
After the initial phase, a ramp is generated to have a
smooth path from the initial zero voltage to the final
value. Timer1, with an interrupt rate of 1 µs, is used. At
each timer interrupt, the desired voltage is incremented
by a fixed delta until the final desired output voltage is
reached.
Then the main code enters an endless loop, which during normal operation, is interrupted only by the ADC
ISRs.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
ADC Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
This is the real core of the code. The first thing to do is
to determine which pair of input analog channels generated the interrupt. A computed GOTO is used to jump
to the corresponding piece of code. Since a voltage
control loop is implemented, only the output voltage
value (label OutputValues) is of interest.
Then some housekeeping is performed (pointers to the
buffer start address are initialized). Then the current
voltage input value is read and adjusted as shown in
Example 4. In this portion of code, W3 points to the
ADC register containing the voltage value. A left shift
(multiply by two) is required since the hardware circuit
to read the output voltage is a one-half resistors voltage
divider.
EXAMPLE 4:
; Calculate Voltage error
mov
[W3], W0
sl
W0, #1, W0
mov
W0, Vfb
The current value of the error can now be determined
(see Example 5), remembering that the error is the difference between the desired voltage and the real voltage read through the ADC. In this portion of code, W0
contains at the beginning of the real output voltage
value and at the end the newly computed error.
The PID is computed using the movsac instruction first
(to initialize the W6 and W7 registers and the buffers
pointers), and then the mac instruction (three times), as
shown in Example 6, which performs the multiply/
accumulate instruction as described in Figure 81.
EXAMPLE 6:
movsac
mac
mac
mac
; save
sac.r
A, [W8]+=2, W6, [W10]+=2, W7
W6*W7, A, [W8]+=2, W6, [W10]+=2, W7
W6*W7, A, [W8]+=2, W6, [W10]+=2, W7
W6*W7, A
value rounded
, -#8, [W2]
At the end, the result (stored in accumulator A) is also
rounded and saved in a RAM location (VCTRL).
The duty cycle value, accumulated in subsequent
steps, is stored continuously into accumulator A. Some
checks on the content of accumulator A are performed
to make sure that the accumulated duty cycle never
becomes larger that the period or, vice versa, becomes
too small.
Note that, to increase the resolution for the PID coefficients, an 8.8 format is used. This means that there is
an implied comma (‘ , ’) between bit 7 and bit 8 of the
16-bit wide register. The nice thing of this representation is that it is also possible to use fractional numbers.
In other words, a value ‘1’ in this format is represented
by: 0000.0001.000.0000 = 0x0100.
EXAMPLE 5:
; computation of proportional error
; ep = Vdesired - current output voltage
; ep [W1] = Vdesired - Vfb
mov
Vdesired, W1
sub
W1, W0, W0
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 103
AN1207
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The need for higher performance AC-to-DC and DC-toDC converters is supported by the availability of
processors such as Microchip’s dsPIC DSC SMPS
family of devices. These devices are able to perform
computational intensive algorithms, while providing
specialized peripherals.
• Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland, William P. Robbins, “Power Electronics: Converters, Applications
and Design”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002
• Abraham I. Pressman, “Switching Power Supply
Design”, McGraw-Hill, 1997
• Lawrence R. Rabiner, Bernard Gold, “Theory and
Application of Digital Signal Processing”, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975
• A. V. Oppenheim, R. W. Schafer, “Digital Signal
Processing”, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975
Covering all aspects of converter design is beyond the
scope of this application note. The intent is to provide
at the very least the basic tools needed to understand
and design a working converter.
A basic understanding of the main converter topologies, their requirements, and their performance is fundamental to implementing converters where maximum
performance is achieved.
The first part of this application note deals with topologies (isolated and non-isolated), and behavioral details
of the various systems are provided. In some
instances, where appropriate, additional information is
presented, such as power consumption and efficiency.
Design equations are provided for all topologies, which
serve to fill in the gap between theory and practical
implementation. Other design approaches can be used
if desired.
Digital converters are closed loop systems, which
come with advantages as well as issues. A fast review
of basic control theory is presented, as well as an
explanation on how to use the powerful tools that this
theory provides toward designing a stable converter.
Some effort has been taken to show how these results
can be efficiently implemented using the Microchip
dsPIC DSC SMPS family of devices. Implementation of
a PID system is shown and the code is also available
(see Appendix A: “Source Code”).
DS01207B-page 104
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
AN1207
APPENDIX A:
SOURCE CODE
Software License Agreement
The software supplied herewith by Microchip Technology Incorporated (the “Company”) is intended and supplied to you, the
Company’s customer, for use solely and exclusively with products manufactured by the Company.
The software is owned by the Company and/or its supplier, and is protected under applicable copyright laws. All rights are reserved.
Any use in violation of the foregoing restrictions may subject the user to criminal sanctions under applicable laws, as well as to civil
liability for the breach of the terms and conditions of this license.
THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED IN AN “AS IS” CONDITION. NO WARRANTIES, WHETHER EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE APPLY TO THIS SOFTWARE. THE COMPANY SHALL NOT, IN ANY CIRCUMSTANCES, BE LIABLE FOR
SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, FOR ANY REASON WHATSOEVER.
All of the software covered in this application note is
available as a single WinZip archive file. The archive
may be downloaded from the Microchip corporate Web
site at:
www.microchip.com
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 105
AN1207
APPENDIX B:
REVISION HISTORY
Revision A (June 2008)
This is the initial released version of this document.
Revision B (September 2009)
This revision includes the following updates, which
clarify the dsPIC DSC device families that can be used
in conjunction with this application note.
• Updated the second sentence in the last
paragraph on page 98 by adding a reference to
the dsPIC30F family.
• Updated the device family reference to include
the dsPIC33F part family in first paragraph of the
Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS) dsPIC DSC
Devices section.
• Updated the machine cycle value device family
references in the eight paragraph of the Switch
Mode Power Supply (SMPS) dsPIC DSC Devices
section.
DS01207B-page 106
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
Note the following details of the code protection feature on Microchip devices:
•
Microchip products meet the specification contained in their particular Microchip Data Sheet.
•
Microchip believes that its family of products is one of the most secure families of its kind on the market today, when used in the
intended manner and under normal conditions.
•
There are dishonest and possibly illegal methods used to breach the code protection feature. All of these methods, to our
knowledge, require using the Microchip products in a manner outside the operating specifications contained in Microchip’s Data
Sheets. Most likely, the person doing so is engaged in theft of intellectual property.
•
Microchip is willing to work with the customer who is concerned about the integrity of their code.
•
Neither Microchip nor any other semiconductor manufacturer can guarantee the security of their code. Code protection does not
mean that we are guaranteeing the product as “unbreakable.”
Code protection is constantly evolving. We at Microchip are committed to continuously improving the code protection features of our
products. Attempts to break Microchip’s code protection feature may be a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. If such acts
allow unauthorized access to your software or other copyrighted work, you may have a right to sue for relief under that Act.
Information contained in this publication regarding device
applications and the like is provided only for your convenience
and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to
ensure that your application meets with your specifications.
MICROCHIP MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND WHETHER EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, WRITTEN OR ORAL, STATUTORY OR
OTHERWISE, RELATED TO THE INFORMATION,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ITS CONDITION,
QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, MERCHANTABILITY OR
FITNESS FOR PURPOSE. Microchip disclaims all liability
arising from this information and its use. Use of Microchip
devices in life support and/or safety applications is entirely at
the buyer’s risk, and the buyer agrees to defend, indemnify and
hold harmless Microchip from any and all damages, claims,
suits, or expenses resulting from such use. No licenses are
conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any Microchip
intellectual property rights.
Trademarks
The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, dsPIC,
KEELOQ, KEELOQ logo, MPLAB, PIC, PICmicro, PICSTART,
rfPIC and UNI/O are registered trademarks of Microchip
Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other countries.
FilterLab, Hampshire, HI-TECH C, Linear Active Thermistor,
MXDEV, MXLAB, SEEVAL and The Embedded Control
Solutions Company are registered trademarks of Microchip
Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A.
Analog-for-the-Digital Age, Application Maestro, CodeGuard,
dsPICDEM, dsPICDEM.net, dsPICworks, dsSPEAK, ECAN,
ECONOMONITOR, FanSense, HI-TIDE, In-Circuit Serial
Programming, ICSP, Mindi, MiWi, MPASM, MPLAB Certified
logo, MPLIB, MPLINK, mTouch, Octopus, Omniscient Code
Generation, PICC, PICC-18, PICDEM, PICDEM.net, PICkit,
PICtail, PIC32 logo, REAL ICE, rfLAB, Select Mode, Total
Endurance, TSHARC, UniWinDriver, WiperLock and ZENA
are trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the
U.S.A. and other countries.
SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated
in the U.S.A.
All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their
respective companies.
© 2009, Microchip Technology Incorporated, Printed in the
U.S.A., All Rights Reserved.
Printed on recycled paper.
Microchip received ISO/TS-16949:2002 certification for its worldwide
headquarters, design and wafer fabrication facilities in Chandler and
Tempe, Arizona; Gresham, Oregon and design centers in California
and India. The Company’s quality system processes and procedures
are for its PIC® MCUs and dsPIC® DSCs, KEELOQ® code hopping
devices, Serial EEPROMs, microperipherals, nonvolatile memory and
analog products. In addition, Microchip’s quality system for the design
and manufacture of development systems is ISO 9001:2000 certified.
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.
DS01207B-page 107
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03/26/09
DS01207B-page 108
© 2009 Microchip Technology Inc.