NCS5651 Product Preview 2 Amp PLC Line Driver Description The NCS5651 is a high efficiency, Class A/B, low distortion power line driver. It is optimized to accept a signal from a Power Line Carrier modem. The device consists of two Operational Amplifiers (opamps). The output opamp is designed to drive up to 2 A peak into an isolation transformer or simple coil coupling to the mains. At an output current of 1.5 A, the output voltage is guaranteed to swing within 1 V or less of either rail giving the user improved SNR. In addition to the output amplifier, a small−signal opamp is provided which can be configured as a unity gain follower buffer or can provide the first stage of a 4−pole low pass filter. The NCS5651 offers a current limit, programmable with a single resistor, RLIM, together with a current limit flag. The device provides two independent thermal flags with hysteresis: a thermal warning flag to let the user know the internal junction temperature has reached a user programmable thermal warning threshold and a thermal error flag that indicates the internal junction temperature has exceeded 150°C. The NCS5651 has a power supply voltage range of 6−12 V. It can be shut down, leaving the outputs highly−impedant. The NCS5651 comes in a 20−lead QFN package (4 × 4 × 1 mm3) with an exposed thermal pad for enhanced thermal reliability. • • • • • MARKING DIAGRAM 20 1 1 20 QFN20 CASE 485E Rail−to−Rail: Drop of Only ±1 V with IOUT = 1.5 A VBB Supply Voltage: 6−12 V Flexible 4th−Order Filtering Current−Limit Set with One Resistor Diagnostic Flags Level Shifted to VCC to Simplify Interface with External MCU ♦ Thermal Warning Flag with Flexible Threshold Setting ♦ Thermal Error flag and Shutdown ♦ Overcurrent Flag Enable/Shutdown Control Extended Junction Temperature Range: −40°C to +125°C Small Package: 20−pin 4 × 4 × 1 mm3 NQFP with Exposed Thermal Pad Optimized for Operation in the CENELEC A to D Frequency Band This is a Pb−Free Device NCS 5651 ALYWG G A = Assembly Location L = Wafer Lot Y = Year W = Work Week G = Pb−Free Package (Note: Microdot may be in either location) ORDERING INFORMATION Device NCS5651MNTXG Features • • • • • www.onsemi.com Package Shipping† QFN20 3000 / Tape & Reel (Pb−Free) †For information on tape and reel specifications, including part or orientation and tape sizes, please refer to our Tape and Reel Packaging Specifications Brochure, BRD8011/D. Typical Applications • Power Line Communication Driver in AMM and AMR Metering Systems • Valve, Actuator, and Motor Driver • Audio This document contains information on a product under development. ON Semiconductor reserves the right to change or discontinue this product without notice. © Semiconductor Components Industries, LLC, 2015 January, 2015 − Rev. P2 1 Publication Order Number: NCS5651/D NCS5651 GND VCC TW TSD ILIM 20 19 18 17 16 Exposed Pad EN 1 15 RLIMIT VCOM 2 14 VWARN A+ 3 13 B+ A− 4 12 B− 5 11 VEE AOUT NCS5651 6 7 8 9 10 VBB VBB BOUT BOUT VEE Figure 1. Pin Out NCS5651 in 20−pin NQFP (top view) Table 1. NCS5651 PINOUT Signal Name Type Pin # Pin Description ENB Input 1 Enable input (active low) VCOM Power 2 Virtual Common Voltage = (VCC − VEE)/2 (Note 1) A+ Input 3 Non inverting input of opamp A A− Input 4 Inverting input of opamp A AOUT Output 5 Output of opamp A VBB Power 6, 7 Positive Power Supply Amplifiers BOUT Output 8, 9 Output of opamp B VEE Power 10, 11 B− Input 12 Inverting input of opamp B B+ Input 13 Non inverting input of opamp B VWARN Input 14 Thermal Warning Temp Set RLIMIT Input 15 Output B Current Limit Set Resistor ILIM Output 16 Current Limit Flag TSD Output 17 Thermal Shutdown Flag TW Output 18 Thermal Warning Flag VCC Power 19 Logic supply GND Power 20 Logic ground EXP Power − Exposed pad. To be connected to VEE potential Negative Power Supply Amplifiers 1. The principal purpose of pin 2 is to facilitate the implementation of the 4th−order low pass filter when operating on single−sided supply by providing a virtual common at mid−supply. When operating on dual balanced supplies, Pin 2 must be left floating and the external common of the dual supplies should be used for the filter implementation www.onsemi.com 2 NCS5651 VBB 6 NCS5651 7 V+ V+ 4 A− 5 AOUT 3 A+ 19 V− EN VCC 1 17 EN TSD TSD 18 VWARN TW TWARN 14 VWARN 16 ILIM ILIM 20 EN V+ 12 9 B− B+ GND 13 8 V− BOUT 1.215 V V+ 2 VCOM BIAS V− V− 15 10 RLIMIT 11 VEE Figure 2. NCS5651 Block Diagram Table 2. ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS Symbol Parameter Min Max Unit TJ Junction temperature −40 +160 °C TSTG Storage temperature −65 +165 °C Supply voltage (VBB to VEE) −0.3 13.2 V VEE − 0.3 VBB + 0.3 V 5.5 V VCC + 0.3 V VS VICR Common Mode Voltage Range input VCCM Logic Supply Voltage VI Logic Input Voltage GND − 0.3 Stresses exceeding those listed in the Maximum Ratings table may damage the device. If any of these limits are exceeded, device functionality should not be assumed, damage may occur and reliability may be affected. Table 3. THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS RqJA obtained with 2S2P test boards according to JEDEC JESD51 standard. Symbol RqJA Rating Thermal Resistance, Junction−to−Air (Note 3) www.onsemi.com 3 Typical Value Unit 38 °C/W NCS5651 Table 4. RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS (Note 2) Symbol Parameter TA Ambient Temperature VS Supply voltage (VBB to VEE) VCC Logic Supply voltage) Min Max Unit −40 +125 °C 6 12 V 3.0 5.0 V Functional operation above the stresses listed in the Recommended Operating Ranges is not implied. Extended exposure to stresses beyond the Recommended Operating Ranges limits may affect device reliability. 2. Refer to the electrical characteristics and the application information for Safe Operating Area. Table 5. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS VBB = 12 V; −40°C ≤ TJ ≤ +125°C Symbol Parameter Condition Min Typ Max Unit Input offset voltage ±3 ± 10 mV Power supply rejection ratio 25 150 mV/V OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER A VOS,A PSRRA IB,A Input bias current (Note 3) en,A Input voltage noise density VCM,A CMRRA Common Mode Rejection Ration Differential Input Impedance ZICM,A Common Mode Input Impedance AOL,A Open Loop Gain (Note 3) GBWA Gain Bandwidth Product FPBWA Full Power Bandwidth (Note 3) THD+NA 250 VEE − 0.1 VEE − 0.1 ≤ VCM ≤ VCC − 3 RL = 500 W 70 80 Total Harmonic Distortion + Noise Output swing from Positive Rail VOL,A Output swing from Negative Rail ISC,A Short−Circuit Current ZO,A Output Impedance nA nV/√Hz VBB − 3 V 85 dB 0.2 | 1.5 GW | pF 0.2 | 3 GW | pF 100 dB 80 MHz 1.5 MHz 60 V/ms CLG = +1; RL = 500 W; VO = 8 VPP; f = 1 kHz; Cin = 220 mF; Cout = 330 mF 0.015 % CLG = +1; RL = 50 W; VO = 8 VPP; f = 1 kHz; Cin = 220 mF; Cout = 330 mF 0.023 % CLG = +5; VOUT = 11 VPP Slew Rate VOH,A CLOAD,A f = 1 kHz; VIN = GND; BW = 131 kHz Common Mode voltage range ZIDM,A SRA 1 RL = 500 W to mid−supply CLG = 4; f = 100 kHz Capacitive Load Drive 0.3 1 V 0.3 1 V 280 mA 0.25 W 100 pF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER B Input offset voltage ±3 ± 10 mV PSRRB Offset versus power supply 25 150 mV/V IB,B Input bias current (Note 3) en,B Input voltage noise density VOS,B VCM,B CMRRB 1 f = 1 kHz; VIN = GND; BW = 131 kHz Common Mode voltage range Common Mode Rejection Ratio 125 VEE − 0.1 VEE − 0.1 ≤ VCM ≤VBB − 3 70 nA nV/√Hz VBB − 3 V 85 dB ZiDIF,B Differential Input Impedance 0.2 | 11 GW | pF ZiCM,B Common Mode Input Impedance 0.2 | 22 GW | pF Product parametric performance is indicated in the Electrical Characteristics for the listed test conditions, unless otherwise noted. Product performance may not be indicated by the Electrical Characteristics if operated under different conditions. 3. Guaranteed by characterization or design 4. CLG = Closed Loop Gain 5. The VCOM voltage is generated by an internal resistive divider. The pin should not be loaded. 6. Characterization data only. Not tested in production. www.onsemi.com 4 NCS5651 Table 5. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS VBB = 12 V; −40°C ≤ TJ ≤ +125°C Symbol Parameter Condition Min Typ Max Unit RL = 5 W 80 100 dB 60 MHz OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER B AOL,B Open Loop Gain (Note 3) GBWB Gain Bandwidth Product FPBWB Full Power Bandwidth (Note 3) SRB THD+NB VOH,B VOL,B CLG = +5; VOUT = 11 VPP 200 400 kHz 70 V/ms 0.015 % CLG = +1; RL = 50 W; VO = 8 VPP; f = 100 kHz 0.023 % Slew Rate Total Harmonic Distortion + Noise Output swing from Positive Rail Output swing from Negative Rail CLG = +1; RL = 50 W; VO = 8 VPP; f = 1 kHz IOUT = −1.5 A @ TJ = 25°C 0.7 1 IOUT = −1.0 A @ TJ = 125°C 0.7 1 IOUT = +1.5 A @ TJ = 25°C 0.4 1 IOUT = +1.0 A @ TJ = 125°C 0.4 1 V ISC,B Short−Circuit Current ZO,B Output Impedance CLG = 1; f = 100 kHz; ENB = 0 0.065 W ZO,B Output Impedance ENB = 1 12 MW 500 nF CLOAD,B 280 V Capacitive Load Drive mA BOTH AMPLIFIERS COMBINED TJ,SD Junction temperature shutdown threshold (Note 6) +160 °C TJ,SD,R Junction temperature shutdown recovery threshold (Note 6) +135 °C TW is determined by the ratio of 2 resistors ± 10 °C ILIM is determined by a single resistor ± 50 mA +150 TW Thermal warning tolerance (Note 4) ILIM Current Limit Tolerance IQE Quiescent Current, enabled ENB = 0 20 40 mA IQD Quiescent Current, disabled ENB = 1 120 150 mA Common mode reference output voltage (Note 5) 6.0 6.2 V VCOM Common mode reference output impedance 5.8 (Notes 5 and 6) 110 kW LOGIC VIH ENB input level high VIL ENB input level low IIH ENB input current GND + 2 V 0.8 V VENB = 3.3 V 10 mA VENB = 0 V 0.1 mA IIL VOH Flag Output High level VOL Flag Output Low level GND + 2 tsd Output Shutdown time ENB 0 → 1 60 ten Output Enable time ENB 1 → 0 5 GND + 0.8 V V ns 10 ms Product parametric performance is indicated in the Electrical Characteristics for the listed test conditions, unless otherwise noted. Product performance may not be indicated by the Electrical Characteristics if operated under different conditions. 3. Guaranteed by characterization or design 4. CLG = Closed Loop Gain 5. The VCOM voltage is generated by an internal resistive divider. The pin should not be loaded. 6. Characterization data only. Not tested in production. www.onsemi.com 5 NCS5651 −30 −35 −35 THIRD HARMONIC (dBc) −30 −40 −45 −50 RL = 1.4 W −55 RL = 8.3 W −60 RL = 50.0 W −65 −40 −45 RL = 1.4 W −50 RL = 8.3 W −55 −60 −65 RL = 50.0 W −70 −70 −75 −75 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0 4.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 OUTPUT VOLTAGE (VRMS) OUTPUT VOLTAGE (VRMS) Figure 3. Second Harmonic Distortion of the Output opamp vs. Output Amplitude, for f = 100 kHz and RL (top to bottom) = 1.4 W, 8.3 W, 50 W. Figure 4. Third Harmonic Distortion of the Output opamp vs. Output Amplitude, for f = 100 kHz and RL (top to bottom) = 1.4 W, 8.3 W, 50 W. 12 V 3 kW 100 nF 22 μ F 3 pF 3 kW VEE A+ AOUT 50 μ F B− A− BOUT B+ RL ½ NCS5651 ½ NCS5651 6V Figure 5. Test Circuit for Figures 3 and 4 8 Output low, VUC = 5 V 7 Current sunk/sourced from pin [mA] SECOND HARMONIC (dBc) TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 6 5 Output low, VUC = 3.3 V 4 3 2 1 Output high, VUC = 3.3 V Output high, VUC = 5 V 0 0 1 2 3 Voltage at pin [V] 4 5 Figure 6. Digital Output Pin (ILIM, TSD, TW) Current Sourcing and Sinking Capability www.onsemi.com 6 4.0 NCS5651 TYPICAL APPLICATION the amplifier from high−energy transients from the mains. For more information on power line communication, refer to [3]. For more information on circuit design with the NCS5651, refer to the NCN49597/9 user manual [1]. A typical power line communication (PLC) application for the NCS5651 is shown in Figure 7. The input amplifier is used in an MFB topology with the power amplifier configured as an inverting amplifier (C4 is required for stability). The circuit formed by D1−D5, L1 and R6 protects 12V R4 R5 FB 3.3V C8 C4 12V C10 C9 12V C12 R3 R1 12V D6 C3 U1 VIN C1 C13 OUTA VCC 5 R2 −A C2 7 R7 6 D1 NCS5651 +A 3 12V VBB −B 12 19 4 1 15 20 9 2 10 16 11 13 17 OUTB 18 3.3V A VWARN EN RLIM GND VCOM D3 C5 8 BIAS 14 L1 +B D2 R6 D4 L2 C7 D7 R8 D5 Tr C6 ILIM TSD TW VEE R9 MAINS R11 R10 A R12 R13 R14 U2 C11 ERROR ENABLE D9 D10 D8 Figure 7. Typical Application Schematic for PLC modem Table 6. BILL OF MATERIALS Reference Designator Value (typical) Note Manufacturer Part Number U1 Power operational amplifier ON Semiconductor NCS5651 U2 AND gate ON Semiconductor MC74VHC1G32 D1, D2 Schottky diode ON Semiconductor MBRA140 D3, D4 Schottky diode ON Semiconductor MBRA340 D5 Zener Transient Voltage suppressor ON Semiconductor 1SMA11ATG3 D6 Zener Transient Voltage suppressor ON Semiconductor 1SMA12ATG3 D7 Zener Transient Voltage suppressor ON Semiconductor P6SMB11CAT3G D8, D9, D10 Low power indication LED Rx TBD Cx TBD L1 3,3 mH Saturation current ≥ 2 A L2 10−27 mH Depending on transformer and communication carrier frequency FB 600 W @ 10 MHz Ferrite bead, ≥ 1.5 A current rating Tr Coupling transformer www.onsemi.com 7 NCS5651 APPLICATION INFORMATION Exposed Thermal Pad 10 nF is recommended for each sensitive point. For either single−supply operation or split supply operation, bypass should be placed directly across VBB to VEE. In addition add bypass from VCC to GND (Figure 9). The NCS5651 is capable of delivering 1.5 A into a complex load. Output signal swing should be kept as high as possible. This will minimize internal heat generation, reducing the internal junction temperature. The NCS5651 can swing to within 1 V of either rail without adding distortion. An exposed thermal pad is provided on the bottom of the device to facilitate heat dissipation. The printed circuit board and soldering process must be carefully designed to minimize the thermal resistance between the exposed pad and the ambient. Refer to [1,2] for more information. 12V FB 3.3V 600Z 10 mF 100 nF VCC 100 nF VBB −B 19 NCS5651 12 6 7 8 Multi−Feedback Filter (MFB) OUTB CENELEC EN 50065−1 is a European standard for signaling on low−voltage electrical installations in the frequency range 3 kHz to 148. 5 kHz. More specifically Part 1 of that specification deals with frequency bands and electromagnetic disturbances introduced into the electrical mains. A practical solution to meet this requirement is to place a 4th−order filter between the output of the modem and the isolation transformer connected to the mains. In this datasheet a MFB filter topology is proposed to help meet the requirements of the CENELEC standard. Four pole filters require two op amps for implementation. The NCS5651 has an input pre−amplifier and an output power amplifier. Therefore only passive components (R’s and C’s) need to be added. In addition the NCS5651 has a mid−supply virtual common at pin 2 (Vcom) to facilitate implementation of the filter topology. Figure 8 shows the frequency response for each stage and the overall filter. BIAS 20 9 13 2 VCOM GND 11 10 +B 10 nF VEE Figure 9. Decoupling Capacitors Current Limit (R−Limit) The maximal output current of the NCS5651 can be programmed by the simple addition of a resistor (RLIM) from pin 15 to VEE (Figure 7). Figure 8 shows the limiting value for given resistance, with a tolerance of ±50 mA. Unlike traditional power amplifiers, the NCS5651 current limit functions both when sourcing and sinking current. To calculate the resistance required to program a desired current limit the following equation can be used: I LIM + 1.215 R LIM 8197 If the load current reaches the set current limit, the ILIM flag will go logic high. As an example, the user may act on this by reducing the signal amplitude. When the current output recovers, the ILIM flag returns low. 9 BOUT 8 1.215 V Figure 8. Frequency Response of an EN 50065−1 Compliant Filter NCS5651 11 15 RLIMIT Decoupling 10 VEE RLIM Optimal stability and noise rejection will be implemented with power supply bypassing placed as physically close to the device as possible. A parallel combination of 10 mF and Figure 10. Programming the Current Limit www.onsemi.com 8 NCS5651 Figure 11 illustrates the required resistance to program the current limit. VBB R1 18 VWARN R2 14 VWARN 11 10 T WARN TW NCS5651 VEE Figure 12. Setting the Thermal Warning Limit by Applying the Corresponding Threshold Voltage to Pin 14 (VWARN) Figure 13 illustrates the linearity of the internal junction temperature to the required voltage on pin 14 (Twarn). Figure 11. RLIM in Function of the ILIM Thermal Shutdown and Thermal Warning Flag Excessive dissipation inside the amplifier, for instance during overload conditions, can result in damaging junction temperatures. A thermal shutdown protection monitors the junction temperature to protect against this. When the internal junction temperature reaches approximately 160°C, the amplifier is disabled and placed in a high−impedance state. The amplifier will be re−enabled − assuming the Enable input is still active − when the junction temperature cools back down to approximately 135°C. During thermal shutdown the TSD flag (thermal shut down, pin 17) will go logic high. The user has the option to avoid entering into the TSD mode by monitoring the junction temperature via the Thermal Warning feature. Any junction temperature (TWARN) from 105°C to 145°C can be programmed by applying the appropriate voltage to pin 14. Figure 11 shows how this may be realized with a voltage divider between VBB (pins 6,7) and VEE (the negative supply, pin 10 or 11). The voltage ratio required to program the thermal warning of the NCS5651 can be calculated using: V TW + 6.665 10 −3ǒT JǓ ) 1.72 Figure 13. Thermal Warning Threshold in Function of Junction Temperature Virtual Common (VCOM) The principal purpose of VCOM is to provide a convenient virtual common for implementing the 4th−order CENELEC filter when operating on single−sided power supply. When operating on balanced split supplies it is recommended to use the power supply common for the filter implementation and to leave VCOM floating. The output impedance of VCOM is high, about 110 kW; thus, it is strongly recommended to use VCOM only for biasing the non−inverting inputs. In addition, it must be buffered with a ceramic capacitor for optimal supply noise rejection. (eq. 1) www.onsemi.com 9 NCS5651 Safe Operating Area Although voltage−versus−current is the normal representation of safe operating area, a PLC line driver can only control one of these variables: voltage and current are linked through the mains impedance. Figure 15 displays exactly the same information as Figure 14 but might be easier to work with. Constant current values are now represented as canted lines. The safe operating area (SOA) of an amplifier is the collection of output currents IL and the output voltages VL that will result in normal operation with risk of destruction due to overcurrent or overheating. In a normal application only the output amplifier of the line driver must be considered; the load on the small−signal amplifier is usually negligible. The output amplifier SOA depends on the thermal resistance from junction to ambient RqJA, which in turn strongly depends on board design. RqJA = 50 K/W in free air is a typical value, which may be used even if the host printed circuit board (PCB) is mounted in a small closed box, provided the transmission of frames are infrequent and widely spread in time. This typical value is also used in the generation of the curves plotted in Figures 14 and 15. Figure 14 shows the SOA in function of output current IL and output voltage VL with the ambient temperature as independent parameter. The maximum allowed current is 800 mA RMS. For that reason it is recommended to limit the output current by using RLIM = 5 kW. This current limitation is plotted as a horizontal line. The maximal output voltage is limited by VCC,max, VOH and VOL. This results in the straight line on the right hand side of the VL–IL plot. The area below and left from these limitations is considered as safe. The relation between output voltage and current is the impedance as seen at the output of the power operational amplifier. Constant impedance lines are represented by canted lines. Figure 15. Example SOA in ZL–VL Space (bottom right corner is safe) Again, the safe operating area depends on PCB layout. Thus, the designer must verify the performance of her particular design [1]. Digital Power Supply GND−Reference and Translators In many mixed signal applications analog GND and digital GND are not at the same potential. To minimize GND loop issues, the NCS5651 has a separate GND pin (pin 20) which should be used to reference the digital supply and the warning flags (pins 16, 17, and 18). In most applications this would be the same GND reference used for the PLC modem. Please note that at some point in the application digital GND and analog GND must be tied together. REFERENCES In this document references are made to: 1. ON Semiconductor, Design Manual NCN49597/9, December 2014. The latest version is available from your sales representative. 2. ON Semiconductor. AND8402/D Thermal Considerations for the NCS5651 (application note). 2014−08−01. Online at http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/AND8402 −D.PDF 3. ON Semiconductor. AND9165/D. Getting started with power line communication (application note). 2014−11−01. Online at http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/AND 9165−D.PDF Figure 14. Example SOA in VL–IL Space (bottom left corner is safe) with Rthj−a = 50 K/W www.onsemi.com 10 NCS5651 PACKAGE DIMENSIONS QFN20, 4x4, 0.5P CASE 485E ISSUE B A B D PIN ONE REFERENCE 2X 0.15 C ÉÉÉ ÉÉÉ ÉÉÉ ÇÇ ÇÇ ÉÉ EXPOSED Cu E NOTES: 1. DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING PER ASME Y14.5M, 1994. 2. CONTROLLING DIMENSION: MILLIMETERS. 3. DIMENSION b APPLIES TO PLATED TERMINAL AND IS MEASURED BETWEEN 0.15 AND 0.30 MM FROM THE TERMINAL TIP. 4. COPLANARITY APPLIES TO THE EXPOSED PAD AS WELL AS THE TERMINALS. ÉÉ ÉÉ ÇÇ A3 MOLD CMPD A1 DETAIL B DIM A A1 A3 b D D2 E E2 e K L L1 OPTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 2X 0.15 C L L TOP VIEW (A3) DETAIL B L1 A 0.10 C DETAIL A OPTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 0.08 C A1 SIDE VIEW C SEATING PLANE SOLDERING FOOTPRINT* 4.30 0.10 C A B 20X 0.58 D2 DETAIL A MILLIMETERS MIN MAX 0.80 1.00 --0.05 0.20 REF 0.20 0.30 4.00 BSC 2.60 2.90 4.00 BSC 2.60 2.90 0.50 BSC 0.20 REF 0.35 0.45 0.00 0.15 20X L 6 2.88 0.10 C A B 11 1 E2 1 2.88 4.30 20 K 20X e b 0.10 C A B 0.05 C PKG OUTLINE NOTE 3 BOTTOM VIEW 20X 0.35 0.50 PITCH DIMENSIONS: MILLIMETERS *For additional information on our Pb−Free strategy and soldering details, please download the ON Semiconductor Soldering and Mounting Techniques Reference Manual, SOLDERRM/D. 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